科普文章
普通感冒
以鼻咽部黏膜炎症为主要临床表现，包括咳嗽、流涕、打喷嚏、鼻塞等症状。
早期症状主要以鼻部炎症为主，可有喷嚏、鼻塞、流清水样鼻涕，初期可有咽部不适或咽干，咽痒或烧灼感。
2~3 天后变为稠涕，可有咽痛或声嘶，有时由于咽鼓管炎可出现听力减退，也可出现流泪、味觉迟钝、呼吸不畅、咳嗽、少量咳痰等症状。
一般无发热及全身症状，或仅有低热。严重者除发热外，可感乏力不适、畏寒、四肢酸痛和头痛及食欲不振等全身症状。
医生检查可见鼻腔黏膜充血、水肿、有分泌物，咽部轻度充血，胸部检查多无异常。
以咽炎
为主的上感
急性病毒性咽炎
临床主要表现为咽部发痒和灼热感，咳嗽少见，可有发热和乏力。医生检查可见咽部明显充血、水肿，颌下淋巴结肿痛。
咽炎，临床上的常见病多发病，很多人可能对其也并不陌生，咽炎通常是由病毒、细菌感染引起，其常见的临床表现有咽部灼热感，咽喉疼痛，咽部充血水肿，咽干，咽痒咳嗽，嗓子有痰不易咳出，咽部异物感等等。那么咽炎和支气管哮喘有关系吗？咽炎会引起支气管哮喘吗？今天我们来共同探讨一下。
首先，我们来了解一下支气管哮喘，支气管哮喘是由多种细胞和细胞组分参与的以气道慢性炎症为特征的疾病，而且这种慢性炎症通常认为与气道高反应性有关，从而导致出现广泛、多变的可逆性呼气气流受限。支气管哮喘临床症状通常是反复发作的喘息、气促、胸闷和（或）咳嗽等。所以，不管是从发病机制还是临床症状来看，支气管哮喘和咽炎都没有必然的联系。当然长期的慢性咽炎，呼吸道反复感染，以及变应性咽炎是有可能合并支气管哮喘的。咽炎和支气管哮喘发病原因不同，其治疗也就不同，咽炎通常我们需要抗炎，清热解毒，注意休息，营养支持等治疗。而支气管哮喘我们通常需要服用糖皮质激素，抗胆碱能药物，β2受体激动剂的药物，茶碱类药物，白三烯调节剂等药物治疗。
总而言之，一般来说，咽炎和支气管哮喘并没有必然的联系，不管是从发病机制，还是临床症状来看，咽炎和支气管哮喘都是不同的疾病，其治疗原则也就不同。
在这不平凡的 8 月下旬，来了一位主诉咽痛的中年患者，看似简单的咽炎，实则暗藏玄机！
患者，男，40 岁，主诉咽痛半年就诊。期间在当地多家医院就诊，均以咽炎治之，效果不佳，遂来我院门诊耳鼻喉科就诊。电子喉镜检查可见上颚布满簇状疱疹样物，咽后壁充血（++）。由于第一次见，没经验，还以为是疱疹性咽炎，故请来主任帮忙诊断，经验丰富的主任立即怀疑是其他疾病引起，主任说上颚面并不是疱疹，像疣状物多一点，并开具传染病三项检查，抽血发现梅毒抗体异常升高。
梅毒在我国近年来有逐年蔓延的趋势，耳鼻咽喉科是性器官以外较为常见的发病部位，我国报道较少，大部分为二期梅毒，具有极强的直接和间接传染的特点。它起病较为隐匿，患者常隐瞒病史，易被漏诊。临床特点是，发病年龄以中青年为多，多有不洁性生活史。一期梅毒：好发于扁桃体，称为扁桃体硬下疳，占生殖器外硬下疳的 7.5%。而上述病例患者应属二期梅毒了。二期梅毒的表现为：患者约有 36.3%发生咽梅毒。病程一般 2 个月到半年，甚至可长达 2 年。咽梅毒病变可累及腭弓、扁桃体、悬雍垂、软腭、咽后壁等处，且累及部位粘膜充血，表面可见暗红色斑丘疹和暗红色黏膜斑。
综上所述，本例患者应考虑为二期咽梅毒，此病于耳鼻咽喉头颈外科属特殊相关疾病。
婴儿咽炎大多数与受凉感冒、呼吸道炎症感染等等因素有关系，临床上按症状分为以下：1、急性咽炎，大多数是由于病毒或者细菌感染所诱发导致，患者多出现咽部疼痛感，由于疼痛导致患者不喜欢说话、不喜欢动、不喜欢吃东西，经常流口水，经常出现哭闹，精神状态比较萎靡，临床上检查的时候能看到咽部充血，双侧扁桃体充血等等相关症状。部分患者病变严重的时候容易出现急性喉炎，从而出现声音嘶哑、喉喘鸣等等相关症状。2、慢性咽炎，慢性咽炎症状一般不典型，有的患者多有反复的清嗓子，反复干咳，经常有咽干，总感觉嗓子有东西等等相关症状，部分患者也可以出现反复用手抠嗓子等等相关症状。总之，婴儿咽炎的症状，家属要做好定期观察，家属可以
婴儿急性喉炎的最佳治疗方案包括以下：第一、如果婴儿出现了喉阻塞症状，首选应用激素，比如应用地塞米松肌注或者静脉滴注治疗，能够减轻喉部组织的肿胀，使患者喉阻塞得到解除。第二、抗炎治疗，需要尽早应用有效的足量的抗生素，控制感染，首选静脉输液治疗。第三、支持疗法，由于婴儿体质的特殊性，对婴儿出现急性喉炎的情况，要注意婴儿水电解质平衡，要注意保护心脏的功能，避免发生急性心衰等等相关的表现。第四、婴儿急性喉炎的时候，要尽量减少哭闹，使婴儿能够安静休息，以免导致婴儿出现呼吸困难加重。第五、婴儿出现急性喉炎，如果出现了重度喉阻塞，比如三度或者三度以上的喉阻塞，可以考虑进行气管切开或者做气管插管等紧急救治治疗。
如今患癌症的人较多，且有年轻化的趋势，以至于有些人有点头痛脑热、咳嗽咽痛的就联想到癌症。
据统计，我国有60-70%的人有不同程度的咽炎。首先明确地回答，慢性咽炎并不会癌变！
慢性咽炎是咽炎中的一种，常常是由于急性咽炎反复发作发作而导致的，主要症状是：咽喉干、痒、有异物感、咽不下去也咳不出来的感觉，严重的患者还会产生咽喉疼痛，恶心等症状。
咽喉炎，急性与慢性有什么不同？
急性咽喉炎大部分是和病原体(病毒、细菌)的感染有关，是上呼吸道感染的一种，这种病变大部分是可以通过抗感染治疗后完全恢复。
但慢性咽喉炎不同，不能完全根治，会反复发作。慢性咽喉炎是由长期的非生物因素刺激所致，比如长期用嗓过度、经常进食辛辣刺激的食物、不断地吸入有毒有害物质或者工业粉尘所引起的。咽喉部常常有充血红肿，咽后壁有淋巴滤泡增生等慢性炎症表现。
这样的改变基本上不能完全恢复正常，局部敏感不耐受刺激，无论哪种刺激，超过平常能耐受的范围都会加重咽喉部的炎症反应。
长期咽炎会发展为喉癌？
这个不用担心，慢性咽炎并不是癌前病变，单纯的慢性咽炎不会发生癌变。无论咽部症状有多复杂或者与他人不同的症状，都不会发生癌变，而且对身体其他脏器和部位没有明显的影响。
目前的文献记载和临床观察，还没有慢性咽炎导致肿瘤的报道。但如果合并有增生性喉炎则要注意，增生性喉炎属于癌前病变，因喉部粘膜细胞长期的增生，细胞有导致癌变的可能。
如何缓解慢性咽炎？
慢性咽炎既然不会癌变，只要从生活上、饮食上注意，从情绪上进行调整，适当使用局部药物，完全可以缓解症状。
生活上，戒烟是充当其冲的，长期抽烟的人没有一个不合并慢性咽炎的。此外，酒精对咽喉部刺激也很大，尤其是高度酒，有慢性咽炎的人最好不要饮酒。
平时不要接触有刺激性气体的东西，厨房要通风，减少油烟刺激，开空调时室内使用加湿器。
饮食上应该多吃一些清淡的易消化的食物，不要吃辛辣，刺激，油腻及过咸的食物，多吃新鲜的蔬菜和水果，平时多喝水滋润咽喉部。
慢性咽炎虽不会导致癌变的发生，但的的确确会给平时的生活带来一定的麻烦，主观症状比较多，所以平时多调理和保养，尽量让症状消失，不让其反复发作。
轻度喉咙疼一般是不会癌变的,这种及时治疗的话，一般是可以好转的。但是重度的喉咙疼患者，如果不休息喉咙的保养，是有可能癌变的。喉咙疼主要是因为平时不良的生活饮食习惯,经常性的吃一些辛辣刺激性的食物所引起的。这些都会引起咽喉部黏膜的刺激,从而引起喉咙的发炎疼痛。出现这种症状的话,可以买些川贝枇杷膏喝,或者是熬一些冰糖雪梨汤喝,都可以减轻这种症状。同时要调整自己的生活饮食习惯,不要吸烟喝酒,也不要经常性的吃一些辛辣,刺激,上火的食物,保持一个清淡的饮食。
第一步“看大小”
怎么看肿大的程度呢？记住 2 个标记，第一是咽腭弓，第二是中线。
- 如果扁桃体肿大，但没超过咽腭弓，就是一度肿大；
- 超过咽腭弓，二度肿大；
- 肿大越过中线，跑到对侧，甚至两个扁桃体紧贴在一起，那铁定是三度肿大啦。
在儿童 6-9 月龄前，腭扁桃体未发育，一般无法看到。过了婴儿期，扁桃体一旦发育完全，可能会在整个儿童期保持肿大的状态。所以这里可以推翻有两个常见的错误：
- 儿童时期的扁桃体肿大，并无太大意义。
比如下图，就是一个我从四年级放学的孩子里找出来的扁桃体，二度肿大，但她没有任何咽痛、咳嗽、发热、打呼噜妨碍呼吸等情况，她妈妈说一年内只因“感冒”去过 2 次医院，完全不存在“慢性扁桃体炎”之说。
所谓感染，一般伴有炎症反应，也就是“红肿热痛”。短期内没有快速增大或者极不对称，单纯稳定的肿大是正常现象，请保持淡定，安心观察，渡过儿童期。
第二步：看分泌物
当扁桃体上有白色物质的时候，要仔细分辨。强调一点，不是所有扁桃体上的白点点，都是化脓。这里常见的有 3 种情况：
- 细菌感染： A 组链球菌也称为化脓性链球菌，是儿童和青少年细菌性咽炎最常见的病原体，约占所有扁桃体炎的 30%，也就是需要用抗生素的类型。
- 病毒感染：病毒感染占所有咽炎的绝大部分，接近 60%，但有分泌物的常见为 EB 病毒感染，少数为 CMV，也就是巨细胞病毒感染，两者均能引起传染性单核细胞增多症。这类属于病毒感染，抗生素治疗无效。
可以从扁桃体渗出物，判别是否为细菌性化脓性扁桃体炎。
因 EB 病毒而起的扁桃体、往往是灰灰的、均质的一层膜，早期厚一些，恢复期薄一些。而化脓性的扁桃体炎，有一种多中心的集落感。
另外，细菌感染局部还有一个非常有趣的特点，那就是满天星一样的出血点，往往是链球菌溶血素、透明质酸酶共同作用的结果，有这种情况，不管血象高不高，都提示细菌，特异性非常高。
要是分不清怎么办呢？这就需要医生结合全身症状来判断。如果您吃不准，请来医院就诊。
扁桃体结石：慢性扁桃体感染时，扁桃体隐窝可滋生细菌。隐窝内可能会形成细菌的“尸体”、黏液和其他碎片构成的钙化性结石。扁桃体结石可能会有恶臭，并可引起口臭，也有可能没有味道；可能较大甚至如黄豆，也有稍小如小米。
这个时候，应该准备好棉签或者镊子、手电筒轻轻压，一般可以压得出来，但是容易出血。如果自己实在拿不出，请来医院就诊。
第三步：看全身状况
- 细菌性扁桃体炎往往发热且伴有怕冷或者寒战、头痛、疲乏，学龄期儿童较多；可有全身的鸡皮样猩红热皮疹，咽部易化脓和出血点。
- 细菌性扁桃体炎可以引发周围脏器的炎症，比如扁桃体周围蜂窝织炎和脓肿，可能出现重度咽痛、发热、声音含混、流涎、张口困难和/或颈痛，尤其是颈部周围红肿，必须立即来医院就诊。
- 病毒性如鼻病毒、冠状病毒、埃可病毒、柯萨奇病毒等的临床特征包括合并结膜炎、清鼻涕或者打喷嚏、声音嘶哑、散在的溃疡病变、病毒疹和/或腹泻。EB 病毒引起的传染性单核细胞增多症往往除了咽部表现以外，还有颈部淋巴结肿大、眼睑水肿和外周血淋巴细胞增多（注意不是单核细胞）。
- 其他如扁桃体结石，往往见于反复扁桃体感染、饮食重口味、卫生习惯差甚至不定期刷牙的孩子，在无症状的间歇期发现的单发为主的白色不痛白色分泌物，往往较深、不伴有全身症状。
以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。
Presentation of Case
Dr. Carrie Chui (Neurology): A 79-year-old man was admitted to this hospital because of involuntary movements on the left side and transient unresponsiveness.
The patient had been in his usual state of health until 9 months before admission, when involuntary movements of the left shoulder and left side of the face developed. The movements were described by the patient as twitching, were not associated with a change in the level of consciousness, and resolved after 1 to 2 minutes. During the next 6 months, the patient had similar episodes approximately once per month, but the episodes increased in duration, lasting 5 to 6 minutes.
Three months before admission, the episodes of involuntary movements increased in frequency, and the patient was evaluated by his primary care physician. The physical examination was normal. Results of kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 129 mmol per liter (reference range, 135 to 145). There was a history of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, and the sodium level was similar to levels obtained during the past 4 years. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head (Figure 1A), performed before and after the administration of intravenous contrast material, revealed a focus of enhancement in the right middle frontal gyrus that was thought to be a small vascular anomaly. Electroencephalography (EEG), performed with the patient in awake and drowsy states, revealed rare, brief, focal slowing in the left temporal lobe during drowsiness; no epileptiform abnormalities were present.
Figure 1
MRI of the Head and CT Angiogram of the Head and Neck.
Two months before admission, the patient was evaluated in the epilepsy clinic affiliated with this hospital. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements had increased in both frequency and duration, occurring once or twice per day and lasting approximately 10 minutes. Episodes began with tingling and numbness in the left leg that prompted the patient to voluntarily stomp the left foot to relieve the uncomfortable sensation. Then, the patient had involuntary movements that he described as an uncontrollable invisible force moving the left leg and arm, with hyperextension of the arm backward and pronation of the wrist. There was associated numbness in the distal portions of the left third, fourth, and fifth fingers and involuntary movement of the left cheek. No prodromal symptoms occurred. The patient had awareness during the episodes, and after the episodes, he felt fatigued but had a normal level of consciousness, without confusion. The examination in the epilepsy clinic was normal. A diagnosis of seizure disorder was considered, and treatment with levetiracetam was started.
Three weeks before admission, the patient was again evaluated in the epilepsy clinic. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements still occurred on a daily basis but had decreased in duration and involved only the left leg, without abnormal movements of the arm or face. Dizziness, headache, and weakness had developed and were attributed to the use of levetiracetam. The patient’s family had recorded a video of one of the episodes of involuntary movements. After reviewing the video, the patient’s neurologist thought that the episodes were less likely to be caused by seizures and more consistent with choreoathetoid movements. Cross-tapering of medications — with the simultaneous administration of levetiracetam in decreasing doses and clobazam in increasing doses — was initiated, and the patient was referred to the movement disorders clinic affiliated with this hospital.
On the morning of admission, an episode of involuntary movements of the left leg and left shoulder occurred and persisted for 1 hour. Several hours after the symptoms abated, the patient’s wife found the patient to be unresponsive; he was sitting in a chair. Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was responsive. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 180 mg per deciliter (10.0 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 110/80 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.
In the emergency department, the patient reported dysuria and increased urinary frequency. The patient’s daughter noted that he had been more anxious during the past 3 years and occasionally had trouble with memory. Other medical history included Barrett’s esophagus, benign prostatic hypertrophy, chronic hepatitis B virus infection, eczema, gastroesophageal reflux disease, hypertension, nonischemic cardiomyopathy, and osteoporosis. There was no history of head trauma or extended loss of consciousness. Medications included aspirin, atorvastatin, doxazosin, finasteride, omeprazole, metoprolol, sacubitril, and valsartan. There were no known drug allergies. The patient was a lifelong nonsmoker and drank alcohol rarely; he did not use illicit drugs. His mother had had gastric cancer, and his sister had had esophageal cancer; there was no family history of seizures.
On examination, the temporal temperature was 36.8°C, the blood pressure 152/97 mm Hg, the pulse 65 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 16 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 96% while the patient was breathing ambient air. The body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) was 21.7. The blood pressure decreased to 130/63 mm Hg with standing. The patient was alert and interactive. The lower jaw was held to the left, but the nasolabial folds and smile were symmetric with activation. There were nonrhythmic, nonstereotyped, writhing movements of the left arm. Tone was normal, and strength was assessed as 5 out of 5 in the arms and legs. Results of liver-function and kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 125 mmol per liter. The lactate level was 2.1 mmol per liter (19 mg per deciliter; reference range, 0.5 to 2.0 mmol per liter [5 to 18 mg per deciliter]). The urinalysis was normal. Intravenous fluids were administered. Imaging studies were obtained.
Dr. Rajiv Gupta: Computed tomographic (CT) angiography of the head and neck (Figure 1B) revealed extensively calcified plaque with severe stenosis of the distal right common carotid artery (CCA), extending into the proximal right internal carotid artery (ICA), as well as stenosis of the right and left paraclinoid ICAs and the left vertebral artery at its origin. There was no vascular abnormality on the CT angiogram that corresponded to the abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus seen on the previous MRI.
Dr. Chui: The patient was admitted to the hospital. On the second hospital day, the sodium level had increased to 130 mmol per liter, and the lactate level was normal. Additional imaging studies were obtained.
Dr. Gupta: MRI of the head showed no evidence of acute infarction. The focus of enhancement in the right frontal lobe that had been noted previously was not seen on the current MRI.
Dr. Chui: Blood levels of thyrotropin, cobalamin, and glycated hemoglobin and results of coagulation tests were normal. Screening tests for Lyme disease, tuberculosis, and syphilis were negative, as were tests for antibodies to cardiolipin and β2-glycoprotein. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive, at a titer of 1:160 in a homogeneous pattern. During a physical therapy session, the patient had abnormal movements of the left leg, left arm, and left side of the face. The abnormal movements diminished when the patient used distraction techniques, such as thigh tapping, finger snapping, and walking while holding a glass of water.
The transient unresponsiveness that led to the patient’s admission was attributed to a combination of sedation from clobazam and hypovolemia. Treatment with clobazam was stopped, and hydration was encouraged. A diagnosis of functional neurologic disorder was considered; outpatient physical therapy with continued use of distraction techniques was recommended. The patient was discharged home on the third hospital day.
Episodes of involuntary movements continued to occur on a daily basis at home. Two weeks after discharge, when the patient was doing exercises while sitting in a chair and having a conversation with his wife, he suddenly stopped talking. She found him slumped in the chair with his eyes closed, no longer exercising. When she asked him questions, he repeatedly said “yes.” Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was alert, diaphoretic, and nonverbal. He had a facial droop on the left side and a right gaze preference. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 130 mg per deciliter (7.2 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 120/60 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.
In the emergency department, the temporal temperature was 36.6°C, the blood pressure 143/63 mm Hg, the pulse 66 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 18 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 98% while the patient was breathing ambient air. He was alert and interactive. There was a facial droop on the left side. There was no effort against gravity in the left arm. The patient was able to lift the left leg off the bed for 1 to 2 seconds. He had a right gaze deviation that could not be overcome and mild dysarthria. The remainder of the examination was normal. A diagnosis of stroke was considered, and emergency CT angiography was performed.
Dr. Gupta: CT angiography showed no evidence of acute territorial infarction and no changes in cerebrovascular disease.
Dr. Chui: On repeat physical examination performed after CT angiography, the gaze deviation and dysarthria had resolved, and strength was normal. Mild facial paralysis was present.
A diagnosis was made.
Differential Diagnosis
Dr. Albert Y. Hung: This 79-year-old man initially presented with involuntary movements of the left shoulder and face without associated loss of consciousness. Diagnosis of an unusual movement disorder, especially one that is present episodically, can be challenging. Videos brought in by the patient can be very useful. 1 Most movement disorders result from abnormal functioning of extrapyramidal circuits involving the basal ganglia, rather than a specific neuroanatomical lesion, and the first step toward diagnosis is to identify the type of abnormal movements. 2
Four salient aspects of this patient’s involuntary movements can help in characterizing the movement disorder before generating a differential diagnosis. First, the movements were paroxysmal, lasting for short periods of time with resolution between episodes. Second, the movements were nonstereotyped, appearing randomly and variably. Third, the movements were restricted to the left side of his body throughout the course, localizing the disease process to the right cerebral hemisphere. Finally, the symptoms were progressive, increasing in both duration and frequency.
Movement Disorders
This patient had abnormal involuntary movements, symptoms indicative of a hyperkinetic movement disorder. Tremor, the most common hyperkinetic disorder, is unlikely because the patient did not have rhythmic movements. Dystonia is also unlikely, because he did not have sustained muscle contractions that were causing twisting or abnormal postures of the legs, arms, head, neck, or face. Although the patient initially described the movements as twitching, his later descriptions are not suggestive of myoclonus or tics, which manifest as sudden, rapid, recurrent movements.
This patient’s neurologist described the involuntary movements as “choreoathetoid” after reviewing a video of an episode. Chorea, athetosis, and ballism make up a spectrum of involuntary movements that often occur in combination. Chorea refers to involuntary movements that are “dancelike” — irregular, random, unintended, and flowing from one body part to another. When these movements are slow and writhing (with a lower amplitude) and involve the distal limbs, the term athetosis is used. The presence of both chorea and athetosis in the same patient is referred to as choreoathetosis. When the movements are fast and flinging (with a higher amplitude) and involve the proximal limbs, the term ballism is used. Although the description of this patient’s movements was not clearly suggestive of ballism, hemichorea and hemiballismus often occur together.
The term dyskinesia can refer to any abnormal movements and is often used to describe hyperkinetic disorders that are induced by specific drugs, such as tardive dyskinesia induced by dopamine antagonists or dyskinesia induced by levodopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Often, dyskinesia manifests as chorea or choreoathetoid movements, but chorea and dyskinesia are not synonymous. This patient appears to have involuntary dyskinesia with choreoathetosis as the primary phenomenology. Before constructing a differential diagnosis for dyskinesia in this patient, I will consider two conditions that mimic dyskinesia: seizures and functional movement disorder.
Seizures
Various movement disorders may be mistaken for seizures, although these movement disorders are not associated with EEG abnormalities during the episode. Patients with some forms of epilepsy may present with abnormal movements without other features that are typically associated with seizures, such as aura, change in responsiveness, incontinence, or a postictal state. 3,4 Seizures were initially suspected in this patient, and he was referred to the epilepsy clinic. Recurrent focal seizures were probably suspected because of the transient nature of the episodes. Initial MRI had shown a small abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus, but this finding was not seen on follow-up imaging, which makes it unlikely to be related to the overall presentation. Baseline EEG had shown only brief left temporal slowing, without epileptiform abnormalities. The EEG was an interictal study, so the findings do not rule out seizures. However, the slowing was ipsilateral to the abnormal movements, so it is unlikely to be related to the episodes. In addition, the patient’s involuntary movements were nonstereotyped and nonrhythmic, which makes his presentation unlikely to be due to a seizure disorder.
Functional Movement Disorder
Because this patient’s movements diminished with the use of distraction techniques, a diagnosis of functional movement disorder was considered. Most cases of functional movement disorder begin abruptly after a trigger, such as a mild physical injury or illness; a psychological stressor can be present but is not required for diagnosis. Symptoms are typically most severe around the time of onset and may wax and wane over time. Although distractibility is a finding associated with functional disorders, abnormal movements that occur with nonfunctional syndromes can sometimes be suppressed by action or incorporated into voluntary movements in a manner that may appear distractible. Several clinical features in this patient make a diagnosis of functional disorder unlikely. Functional movement disorder is more common in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 40 years. 5 In addition, tremor is the most common clinical phenotype seen in patients with functional movement disorder; chorea or choreoathetosis, which was seen in this patient, is very unusual in patients with functional movement disorder. Overall, functional movement disorder is unlikely to explain this patient’s presentation.
Dyskinesia
Primary paroxysmal dyskinesia refers to a group of heterogeneous syndromes characterized by recurrent involuntary movements that occur episodically and abruptly, without loss of consciousness. 6 These disorders usually begin in childhood or young adulthood. Both the age of this patient and the described phenomenology make a diagnosis of primary paroxysmal dyskinesia unlikely.
The differential diagnosis in this case is therefore focused on causes of secondary dyskinesia, of which there are many. 7 MRI ruled out the presence of a mass lesion suggestive of cancer. The patient had no history of acute illness suggestive of a viral or other infectious encephalitis, and there was no history of trauma or exposure to drugs or other toxins. Although his daughter mentioned trouble with memory, there was no compelling history suggestive of a neurodegenerative disease.
A common metabolic cause of secondary dyskinesia is diabetic striatopathy, a syndrome involving the acute-to-subacute onset of chorea and ballism in the context of hyperglycemia. 8 This syndrome can occur as the initial manifestation of type 2 diabetes mellitus or as a complication of poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetic striatopathy is more likely to develop in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 70 years. Most patients present with hemichorea and hemiballismus, rather than bilateral symptoms. CT shows hyperdensity, and T1-weighted MRI shows hyperintensity, in the contralateral basal ganglia. However, this patient had no history of diabetes and had a normal blood glycated hemoglobin level, features that rule out a diagnosis of diabetic striatopathy.
Choreiform movements can also be a manifestation of autoimmune conditions. 9 This patient’s initial presentation with unilateral shoulder and face movements would have suggested the possibility of faciobrachial dystonic seizures associated with anti–leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 (anti-LGI1) encephalitis. 10 This condition is often associated with hyponatremia, which was present in this patient. However, as the case evolved, leg involvement and sensory changes developed that would be atypical for anti-LGI1 encephalitis.
One key clue in this case is that the patient did not have an isolated movement disorder. In addition to motor symptoms, he had a variety of sensory symptoms involving both the left arm and the left leg. His first hospital admission was precipitated by an episode of unresponsiveness. The clinical event that led to his second presentation to the emergency department was distinctly different: an acute onset of speech difficulty accompanied by left hemiparesis and right gaze deviation that was worrisome for an acute right middle cerebral artery (MCA) syndrome. The symptoms resolved without intervention, which indicates that he may have had an acute transient ischemic attack (TIA). The most relevant imaging finding was severe cerebrovascular disease, including severe stenosis of the distal right CCA and proximal right ICA. Could this patient’s movement disorder be explained by a vascular lesion?
Limb-Shaking TIAs
Limb-shaking TIAs were first described by C. Miller Fisher in 1962. 11 In most case reports, these episodes are associated with high-grade stenosis of the ICA, which was seen in this patient. 12,13 The mechanism is thought to be cerebral hypoperfusion, and changes in posture or head position that decrease cerebral blood flow can precipitate these episodes. In this patient, the first episode of unresponsiveness that led to hospital admission occurred when he was sitting. He then had an acute episode involving right gaze preference that was provoked by exercise and was very suggestive of a TIA in the right MCA territory. These findings are highly suggestive of a diagnosis of limb-shaking TIAs, and I would refer this patient for emergency carotid endarterectomy.
Clinical Impression and Initial Management
Dr. Scott B. Silverman: When I evaluated this patient, his transient right gaze preference and left hemiparesis were consistent with a right MCA syndrome due to a TIA from symptomatic severe stenosis of the right ICA. The mechanism of this event was either artery-to-artery embolism or hypoperfusion. His previous, recurrent episodes of transient choreoathetosis on the left side that had occurred mainly while he was sitting, standing, or exercising were consistent with limb-shaking TIAs from hypoperfusion or low flow.
The pathogenesis of a low-flow state related to severe carotid stenosis resulting in limb-shaking TIAs is described in a small case series. 14 In six out of eight patients, the transient, stereotyped, involuntary movements were eliminated with carotid artery revascularization. Positional cerebral ischemia in patients without orthostatic hypotension has been described. 15
Treatment with atorvastatin was continued, the dose of aspirin was increased to 325 mg per day, and an intravenous heparin infusion was started. The strategy of permissive hypertension was used, with high blood pressure allowed to a maximum systolic blood pressure of 180 mm Hg. The patient was admitted to the stroke service, and carotid artery duplex ultrasonography was performed.
Dr. Gupta: Doppler ultrasonography of the carotid arteries (Figure 2) revealed markedly elevated Doppler flow velocities within the proximal right ICA. There was a parvus et tardus waveform in the distal right ICA, a finding indicative of low flow related to the more proximal high-grade stenosis. The Doppler waveform contours had poststenotic turbulence.
Figure 2
Doppler Ultrasound Image.
Dr. Silverman: The vascular surgery service was consulted, and the patient underwent right carotid endarterectomy.
Clinical Diagnosis
Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.
Dr. Albert Y. Hung’s Diagnosis
Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks due to severe carotid stenosis, with secondary paroxysmal dyskinesia.
Pathological Discussion
Dr. Caroline F. Hilburn: The endarterectomy specimen included the carotid bifurcation and was notable for firm arterial walls, a finding consistent with calcification. On gross examination (Figure 3A), a large plaque was centered at the carotid bifurcation and protruded into the lumen, resulting in a maximal luminal stenosis of 80%. The plaque had an irregular and focally friable surface. On microscopic examination (Figure 3B), the plaque was characterized by extensive calcification. Some regions of the plaque had a smooth, healed fibrous cap, whereas other regions had an irregular surface suggestive of ulceration, which indicated potential sites of plaque rupture. Multiple smaller calcified plaques were present, affecting both branches of the artery.
Figure 3
Endarterectomy Specimen.
Pathological Diagnosis
Complex atherosclerotic plaque with portions of attached media.
Additional Management
Dr. Silverman: After the procedure, the patient had an uneventful recovery and was discharged home on the fifth hospital day. He was seen 1 month after discharge in the stroke prevention clinic. There had been no further episodes of involuntary movements or choreoathetosis and no stroke or TIA. The patient continues to take aspirin, atorvastatin, and antihypertensive medications.
Final Diagnosis
Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.
以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。
Presentation of Case
Dr. Christine M. Parsons (Medicine): A 75-year-old woman was evaluated at this hospital because of arthritis, abdominal pain, edema, malaise, and fever.
Three weeks before the current admission, the patient noticed waxing and waning “throbbing” pain in the right upper abdomen, which she rated at 9 (on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 indicating the most severe pain) at its maximal intensity. The pain was associated with nausea and fever with a temperature of up to 39.0°C. Pain worsened after food consumption and was relieved with acetaminophen. During the 3 weeks before the current admission, edema developed in both legs; it had started at the ankles and gradually progressed upward to the hips. When the edema began to affect her ambulation, she presented to the emergency department of this hospital.
A review of systems that was obtained from the patient and her family was notable for intermittent fever, abdominal bloating, anorexia, and fatigue that had progressed during the previous 3 weeks. The patient reported new orthopnea and nonproductive cough. Approximately 4 weeks earlier, she had had diarrhea for several days. During the 6 weeks before the current admission, the patient had lost 9 kg unintentionally; she also had had pain in the wrists and hands, 3 days of burning and dryness of the eyes, and diffuse myalgias. She had not had night sweats, dry mouth, jaw claudication, vision changes, urinary symptoms, or oral, nasal, or genital ulcers.
The patient’s medical history was notable for multiple myeloma (for which treatment with thalidomide and melphalan had been initiated 2 years earlier and was stopped approximately 1 year before the current admission); hypothyroidism; chikungunya virus infection (diagnosed 7 years earlier); seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis affecting the hands, wrists, elbows, and shoulders (diagnosed 3 years earlier); vitiligo; and osteoarthritis of the right hip, for which she had undergone arthroplasty. Evidence of gastritis was reportedly seen on endoscopy that had been performed 6 months earlier. Medications included daily treatment with levothyroxine and acetaminophen and pipazethate hydrochloride as needed for cough. The patient consumed chamomile and horsetail herbal teas. She had no known allergies to medications, but she had been advised not to take nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after her diagnosis of multiple myeloma.
Approximately 5 months before the current admission, the patient had emigrated from Central America. She lived with her daughter and grandchildren in an urban area of New England. She had previously worked in health care. She had no history of alcohol, tobacco, or other substance use. There was no family history of cancer or autoimmune, renal, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, or cardiac disease.
On examination, the temporal temperature was 37.1°C, the heart rate 106 beats per minute, the blood pressure 152/67 mm Hg, and the oxygen saturation 100% while the patient was breathing ambient air. She had a frail appearance and bitemporal cachexia. The weight was 41 kg and the body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) 15.2. Her dentition was poor; most of the teeth were missing, caries were present in the remaining teeth, and the mucous membranes were dry. She had abdominal tenderness on the right side and mild abdominal distention, without organomegaly or guarding. Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy was palpable. Infrequent inspiratory wheezing was noted.
The patient had swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, ulnar deviation, and distal hyperextensibility of the thumbs (Fig. 1). Subcutaneous nodules were observed on the proximal interphalangeal joints of the second and third fingers of the right hand and on the proximal interphalangeal joint of the fourth finger of the left hand. Synovial thickening of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the second fingers was noted. There was mild swelling and tenderness of the wrists. She had pain with flexion of the shoulders and right hip, and there was subtle swelling of the shoulders and right knee. Pitting edema (3+) and vitiligo were noted on the legs. No sclerodactyly, digital pitting, telangiectasias, appreciable calcinosis, nodules, nail changes (including pitting), or tophi were present. The remainder of the examination was normal.
Figure 1
Photograph of the Hands.
The blood levels of glucose, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, globulin, lactate, lipase, magnesium, and phosphorus were normal, as were the prothrombin time and international normalized ratio; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. Urinalysis showed 3+ protein and 3+ blood, and microscopic examination of the sediment revealed 5 to 10 red cells per high-power field and granular casts. Urine and blood were obtained for culture. An electrocardiogram met (at a borderline level) the voltage criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy.
Table 1
Laboratory Data.
Dr. Rene Balza Romero: Computed tomography (CT) of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, performed after the intravenous administration of contrast material, revealed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules (including clusters in the right middle lobe and patchy and ground-glass opacities in the left upper lobe), trace pleural effusion in the left lung, coronary and valvular calcifications, and trace pericardial effusion, ascites, and anasarca. The scans also showed slight enlargement of the axillary lymph nodes (up to 11 mm in the short axis) bilaterally and a chronic-appearing compression fracture involving the T12 vertebral body.
Dr. Parsons: Morphine and lactated Ringer’s solution were administered intravenously. On the second day in the emergency department (also referred to as hospital day 2), the blood levels of haptoglobin, folate, and vitamin B12 were normal; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. A rapid antigen test for malaria was positive. Wright–Giemsa staining of thick and thin peripheral-blood smears was negative for parasites; the smears also showed Döhle bodies and basophilic stippling. Antigliadin antibodies and anti–tissue transglutaminase antibodies were not detected. Tests for hepatitis A IgG and hepatitis C antibodies were positive. Tests for hepatitis B core and surface antibodies were negative. A test for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) was negative.
Findings on abdominal ultrasound imaging performed on the second day (Fig. 2A and 2B) were notable for a small volume of ascites and kidneys with echogenic parenchyma. Ultrasonography of the legs showed no deep venous thrombosis. An echocardiogram showed normal ventricular size and function, aortic sclerosis with mild aortic insufficiency, moderate tricuspid regurgitation, a right ventricular systolic pressure of 39 mm Hg, and a small circumferential pericardial effusion. Intravenous hydromorphone was administered, and the patient was admitted to the hospital.
Figure 2
Imaging Studies of the Abdomen and Hands.
On the third day (also referred to as hospital day 3), nucleic acid testing for cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, and hepatitis C virus was negative, and a stool antigen test for Helicobacter pylori was negative. An interferon-γ release assay for Mycobacterium tuberculosis was also negative. Oral acetaminophen and ivermectin and intravenous hydromorphone and furosemide were administered.
Dr. Balza Romero: Radiographs of the hands (Fig. 2C through 2F) showed joint-space narrowing of both radiocarpal joints and proximal interphalangeal erosions involving both hands. Radiographs of the shoulders showed arthritis of the glenohumeral joint and alignment suggestive of a tear of the right rotator cuff. A radiograph of the pelvis showed diffuse joint-space narrowing of the left hip, without osteophytosis, and an intact right hip prosthesis.
Dr. Parsons: Diagnostic tests were performed, and management decisions were made.
Differential Diagnosis
Dr. Beth L. Jonas: This patient is a 75-year-old woman who recently emigrated from Central America. She presented to this hospital with a multisystem disease involving the respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and musculoskeletal systems. Her medical history is notable for seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and multiple myeloma, which had been treated with melphalan and thalidomide. Relevant clinical features on presentation include unintended weight loss and cachexia, axillary lymphadenopathy, serositis, cytopenia in two cell lines, hypocomplementemia, and elevated serum free kappa and lambda light-chain levels (with a normal free light-chain ratio) with no monoclonal spike. The white-cell count was elevated, but she had no eosinophilia. CT images of the chest showed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules. With respect to the patient’s anemia, no schistocytes were present, the haptoglobin level was normal, and the iron studies were unremarkable. These findings, in combination with the elevated ferritin level, indicate anemia of chronic inflammation. The renal findings are most salient in the context of the patient’s hypertension, anasarca, elevated cystatin C level, active urinary sediment with proteinuria in the nephrotic range, and small, echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography.
In constructing a differential diagnosis, I will consider medication use, cancer, infectious disease, and autoimmune disease. Medications can be eliminated as the cause of this patient’s illness, since she was taking only levothyroxine, acetaminophen, and the antitussive agent pipazethate.
Cancer
The patient has a history of multiple myeloma, which may manifest with a multisystem disease involving the kidneys, but serum protein electrophoresis showed no monoclonal protein. Given the presence of nephrotic syndrome in the context of multiple myeloma, systemic immunoglobulin light-chain amyloidosis would be highest on the differential diagnosis with respect to cancer; however, the patient’s normal light-chain ratio makes this diagnosis unlikely. The development of myeloid neoplasms, such as acute myeloid leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, and myeloproliferative neoplasms, is important to consider in the context of previous treatment with alkylating agents, 1 which this patient had received. However, the peripheral-blood smear showed no findings that would indicate a hematologic cancer, and such a diagnosis would not explain the patient’s acute kidney injury with nephrotic-range proteinuria.
Infectious Disease
Several features of this patient’s case warrant special consideration, including her history of immunosuppression due to rheumatoid arthritis and to previously treated myeloma, along with the fact that she had emigrated from Central America, where certain infections may be prevalent. Infection with hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, HIV-1 and HIV-2, cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, H. pylori, and M. tuberculosis can be ruled out on the basis of laboratory studies. A rapid antigen test for plasmodium species was reported to be positive, but this assay has a known cross-reactivity with rheumatoid factor. 2 Moreover, the thick and thin peripheral-blood smears were negative. Thus, malaria would be an unlikely diagnosis.
The patient has a history of infection with chikungunya virus, an arbovirus transmitted by a mosquito vector that has been responsible for large epidemics in the Americas since 2013. 3 Acute symptoms include fever, rash, arthralgia, and myalgia. The development of a chronic arthritis that may meet the classification criteria for rheumatoid arthritis, as defined by the American College of Rheumatology and the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology, has been reported in up to 60% of patients infected with chikungunya virus. 4,5 In the context of this discussion, I considered whether chikungunya virus infection could be the cause of this patient’s symptoms, since this infection occurred before the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. However, the degree of erosion and loss of joint space that was visible on radiographs would be most unusual for arthritis associated with chikungunya virus infection and would not explain the renal manifestations.
Strongyloidiasis is a helminth infection (caused by Strongyloides stercoralis) that is widespread in developing countries. Infection usually occurs through contact with soil, and most affected persons are asymptomatic. However, in immunosuppressed persons, strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome or a disseminated infection can develop as a consequence of accelerated autoinfection. 6 The clinical presentation of strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome can include gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, constipation, nausea, or vomiting), respiratory symptoms (cough, dyspnea, or wheezing), and rash due to migration of larvae through the subcutaneous tissues. Of note, only a minority of patients present with eosinophilia. Several case reports describe the development of nephrotic-range proteinuria, thrombotic microangiopathy, and IgA vasculitis in patients with strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome. 7-9 However, strongyloidiasis would not explain this patient’s cytopenias and hypocomplementemia.
Autoimmune Disease
The patient has a 3-year history of rheumatoid arthritis, although her clinical features of swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, and joint instability suggest a longer duration of disease. We do not know whether she had received previous treatment with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs or biologic agents, but the possible use of such treatments may be a consideration with respect to her progression of disease and overall degree of immunosuppression. The blood levels of rheumatoid factor and anti–cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies were elevated, and radiographs of the hands showed erosive disease, although there was a relative paucity of metacarpophalangeal findings. A review of systems was negative for dry mouth, but her physical examination showed poor dentition and dry mouth — findings that make secondary Sjögren’s syndrome a consideration.
Renal disease can occur in patients with Sjögren’s syndrome. The two most typical presentations are tubulointerstitial nephritis and, less commonly, nephritic syndrome (membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis related to cryoglobulinemia). Tubulointerstitial nephritis may manifest with renal disease of varying severity, usually with a bland urinary sediment and often with abnormalities of tubular function such as distal renal tubular acidosis. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis caused by cryoglobulinemia is the most common glomerular disease associated with Sjögren’s syndrome. Although nephrotic-range proteinuria can occur with Sjögren’s syndrome, it is relatively uncommon. 10 Renal disease is uncommon in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and is usually related to coexisting cardiovascular conditions. Medications used in the treatment of autoimmune disease — mainly nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs — may be associated with renal disease, but I would not expect the presence of an active urinary sediment, as was seen in this patient.
Amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis, a condition that is rare in the era of aggressive management of rheumatoid arthritis, has been described in patients with severe, long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis. Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a protein that is produced in the liver in response to chronic inflammation associated with interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the context of chronic infections, autoimmune disease (classically rheumatoid arthritis), autoinflammatory disease, and cancers including renal cell carcinoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. 11 Signs and symptoms of AA amyloidosis are related to the deposition of the protein in organs, and patients often present with multisystem signs and symptoms. The kidney is the organ that is most often affected, but deposition can occur in the heart, gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and lungs. Proteinuria is the first clinical manifestation in almost 95% of patients with AA amyloidosis, and 50% of affected patients present with nephrotic syndrome. 12 The urinary sediment is generally bland, and complement levels in the blood are normal. AA amyloidosis remains on the differential diagnosis in this patient, but it would not completely explain her renal disease.
Hypocomplementemia
The key to this case is understanding the cause of this patient’s hypocomplementemia. Hypocomplementemia can be due to decreased complement production in the context of liver disease, congenital complement deficiency, or increased complement consumption resulting from activation of the innate immune system. This patient has no history of chronic liver disease and her laboratory test results indicated good hepatic synthetic function. Classical complement deficiency (including C4 deficiency) that begins early in life is associated with autoimmune disease, and early C3 deficiency is characterized by severe pyogenic infections. It would be unusual for a patient of this age to be deficient in both C3 and C4 without earlier clinical consequences. I therefore concluded that the hypocomplementemia in this case was related to complement consumption.
Rheumatic diseases that may be associated with prominent renal manifestations include antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody–associated vasculitis, systemic sclerosis with renal crisis, cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, antiglomerular basement membrane disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Of those conditions, SLE would be the most likely to be manifested by an active urinary sediment and nephrotic-range proteinuria with consumption of both C3 and C4 in the context of fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis. This patient’s fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis also fit with this diagnosis. 13
Because the patient has long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, a diagnosis of AA amyloidosis is strongly suspected. Moreover, given the presence of thrombocytopenia, hypocomplementemia, and an active urinary sediment, I would recommend a kidney biopsy to evaluate for lupus nephritis and AA amyloidosis.
Dr. Beth L. Jonas’s Diagnosis
Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus with amyloid A amyloidosis.
Pathological Discussion
Dr. Claire Trivin-Avillach: Testing for autoimmune antibodies was performed. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:5120 with a homogeneous pattern, and a test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:2560.
The diagnostic procedure in this case was a core-needle biopsy of the kidney. Examination of the specimen with light microscopy revealed 20 glomeruli, 45% of which were globally sclerosed, along with fibrosis involving approximately 60% of the interstitium and tubular atrophy. Diffusely enlarged glomeruli with thickened capillary walls and an expanded mesangium were weakly positive on periodic acid–Schiff staining; the glomeruli stained pale blue on Masson’s trichrome staining. Congo red staining revealed metachromatic salmon-colored deposition involving the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium, which was associated with apple-green birefringence when viewed under polarized light (Fig. 3A). In addition, mesangial and endocapillary hypercellularity was identified in approximately 30% of the nonsclerosed glomeruli and was associated with karyorrhexis (Fig. 3B). One cellular crescent was also detected. These features are characteristic of active proliferative glomerulonephritis.
Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed prominent granular staining for IgG (4+), IgM (4+), C3 (3+), C1q (3+), IgA (1+), kappa (3+), and lambda (3+) along the glomerular basement membranes and within the mesangium, as well as focal granular deposits of IgG and C3 along the tubular basement membrane (Fig. 3C and 3D). Additional immunofluorescence studies showed strong positivity (4+) for SAA within the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium (Fig. 3E), whereas staining for beta2-microglobulin, transthyretin, and apolipoprotein A1 was faint.
Electron microscopy revealed the presence of subendothelial and mesangial electron-dense deposits (with no substructure identified) adjacent to randomly arranged fibrils (measuring 8.2 to 10.6 nm in diameter) within the glomerular basement membranes and the mesangium (Fig. 3F). Glomerular endothelial cells appeared reactive and contained tubuloreticular inclusions, features that were suggestive of interferon-mediated activation.
The findings on Congo red staining were characteristic of amyloidosis with typical birefringent material. The strong positivity of SAA within the deposits as compared with the faint staining of other reactants identified the type of amyloid as SAA, which is consistent with the patient’s history of rheumatoid arthritis. The biopsy also showed an immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis with a “full house” pattern (defined as positivity for the three immunoglobulin classes IgG, IgM, and IgA and the two complement components C3 and C1q, in reference to the “full house” hand in a poker game). Immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis has been reported in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who were receiving anti–TNF-α therapy, 14 which was not the case in this patient. The positive test for hepatitis C antibodies prompted consideration of hepatitis C–related membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. However, taken together, the negative nucleic acid test for hepatitis C virus, the full house pattern on immunofluorescence, the tubular basement membrane deposits, and the positive test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies favor a diagnosis of lupus nephritis of at least class III (defined as focal proliferative glomerulonephritis), according to the criteria of the International Society of Nephrology and the Renal Pathology Society, superimposed on AA amyloidosis.
Pathological Diagnosis
Proliferative lupus nephritis of International Society of Nephrology and Renal Pathology Society class III, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.
Discussion of Management
Dr. Pui W. Cheung: On the basis of the finding of echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography and the findings of extensive interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy on kidney biopsy, we know that this patient has advanced chronic kidney disease that is unlikely to be reversible. The patient is also noted to have a markedly lower glomerular filtration rate (GFR) than that predicted by the blood creatinine level owing to the presence of cachexia, and this is substantiated by the cystatin C–based GFR and a 24-hour creatinine clearance of 22 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 of body-surface area. The typical induction therapy for stage III or IV lupus nephritis consists of high-dose glucocorticoids and either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Other reasonable alternatives for initial therapy include mycophenolate mofetil in combination with either a calcineurin inhibitor or belimumab, or cyclophosphamide in combination with belimumab. 15 Hydroxychloroquine is also recommended as part of the therapy, since it has shown benefits in improving the response to treatment and reducing disease flare. 16 Mycophenolate mofetil and cyclophosphamide have similar efficacy with respect to clinical response, which includes a reduction in proteinuria and either an improvement in renal function or stabilization of renal function; the risks of infections and adverse events associated with these medications are also similar. 17,18
Given the severity of the lupus nephritis with overlying AA amyloidosis from active rheumatoid arthritis, the treatment options proposed were high-dose glucocorticoids and rituximab with either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. 19 After discussions with multidisciplinary consultants from rheumatology, infectious diseases, and nephrology, lingering concerns were raised about infection and patient frailty; ultimately, the decision was made to initiate high-dose glucocorticoid therapy in combination with mycophenolate mofetil, rituximab, and hydroxychloroquine.
The patient’s mycophenolate mofetil dose regimen was inconsistent owing to gastrointestinal side effects, and the treatment was eventually withheld because of pancytopenia and fever. Unfortunately, her kidney function worsened, and renal replacement therapy was initiated within 3 weeks after the start of the induction therapy. The cause of her renal failure was thought to be disease progression, compounded by hemodynamically mediated tubular injury in the context of infection. While the administration of mycophenolate mofetil was stopped, treatment with rituximab was continued, with slow tapering of the glucocorticoid dose at the direction of the rheumatologist. She remained dependent on dialysis and was deemed to have end-stage kidney disease after 3 months of dialysis.
Dr. Lisa G. Criscione-Schreiber: The patient has SLE with nephritis, seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic AA amyloidosis. AA amyloidosis is rare owing to the availability of effective therapies for rheumatoid arthritis and is managed through aggressive treatment of inflammation due to rheumatoid arthritis. Reports addressing the management of rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis generally cite stability of end-organ damage caused by AA amyloid as evidence of effective management of the condition (through treatment of the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis). Methotrexate, the cornerstone of treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, is contraindicated in this case owing to the presence of kidney disease. The alkylating agent cyclophosphamide has been reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis from rheumatoid arthritis 20 and has known efficacy in patients with lupus nephritis, both of which make it a viable treatment option. Rituximab has also been reported to be effective for managing rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis, 21 is approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and is used for manifestations of SLE, including thrombocytopenia and nephritis. Although anti–TNF-α agents, abatacept, and Janus kinase inhibitors are reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, 22 recent publications have coalesced on the ability of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to block interleukin-6–induced hepatic production of SAA. 23-25
The overlap of seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and SLE (sometimes termed “rhupus”) usually resembles rheumatoid arthritis more than SLE; manifestations include thrombocytosis, leukocytosis, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, an elevated blood level of C-reactive protein, and the presence of marginal erosions on radiographs. 26 In contrast, SLE without seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis characteristically manifests with thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate but usually not an elevated C-reactive protein level; in addition, nonerosive inflammatory arthritis with reversible deformities is commonly observed. This patient had a mixed laboratory profile, on the basis of the results of antinuclear antibody and anti–double-stranded DNA antibody tests. The challenge of treating an overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and SLE is choosing disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs that are effective and safe in both conditions. This patient’s most severe disease manifestation is lupus nephritis; therefore, the treatment regimen must target nephritis along with the AA amyloidosis and inflammatory arthritis.
As noted earlier, current induction therapy for lupus nephritis includes either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Mycophenolate mofetil may provide inadequate treatment of the rheumatoid arthritis and amyloidosis, whereas cyclophosphamide would treat the lupus nephritis, has possible efficacy for treatment of the AA amyloidosis, and would treat the rheumatoid arthritis. Rituximab could be added to cyclophosphamide or mycophenolate mofetil to treat the rheumatoid arthritis and resultant AA amyloidosis and could also possibly help treat the lupus nephritis. The addition of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide is an intriguing option that may effectively treat the rheumatoid arthritis and subsequent AA amyloidosis. The addition of belimumab to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide has been reported to improve renal response in patients with lupus nephritis, 27 as has the addition of voclosporin to mycophenolate mofetil. 28 However, belimumab is ineffective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and voclosporin has not been studied in patients with rheumatoid arthritis or in those with a GFR of 45 milliliters per minute or less. The high-dose glucocorticoids that are used in induction therapy for lupus nephritis will effectively manage this patient’s inflammatory arthritis and probably also the subsequent AA amyloidosis. Finally, it is important that every patient with lupus nephritis receive hydroxychloroquine, which improves the treatment response to induction therapy. 29
Follow-up
Dr. Parsons: The patient’s hospital course was further complicated by suspected immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, for which she received intravenous immune globulin. Her pancytopenia and arthritis ultimately abated. Unfortunately, she did not have renal recovery and continues to receive hemodialysis. After a prolonged hospital course, she was discharged home.
Final Diagnosis
Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus complicated by proliferative lupus nephritis, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.
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