中国医科大学附属第一医院寻常型天疱疮[恶性天疱疮]推荐专家

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名称：中国医科大学附属第一医院简介：中国医科大学附属第一医院，作为东北地区疑难急重症诊治中心，在皮肤病治疗领域具有显著优势。医院设有皮肤科，专注于天疱疮等大疱性皮肤病的诊断与治疗。拥有一支高水平的医教研团队，其中多位专家在该领域享有盛誉。医院积极开展多学科诊疗（MDT），为天疱疮患者提供个性化、全方位的医疗服务。凭借先进的医疗技术、丰富的临床经验和精湛的医术，中国医科大学附属第一医院已成为天疱疮患者信赖的治疗机构，为无数患者带来健康希望。天疱疮是一种慢性、复发性、严重的表皮内棘层松解性大疱性皮肤病，本病病因尚未完全明确,现认为是一种自身免疫性疾病，皮肤,黏膜，对于天疱疮应加强支持疗法,给予富于营养的易消化饮食,预防和纠正低蛋白血症,注意水、电解质与酸碱平衡紊乱。，大疱性类天疱疮、疱疹样皮炎、多形性红斑,以及重症药疹等进行鉴别，不能吃辛辣的食物,最好不要吃羊肉牛肉鱼之类食物,否则很容易造成感染加重。在饮食方面一定要做好基础工作,否则不利于疾病的治疗,尤其是用药治疗期间最好不要吃辛辣的食物,不要吃重口味的食物,需要保持饮食清淡直接营养丰富的食物。，血清学检查,活检,免疫荧光检查，。

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三级甲等中国医科大学附属第一医院

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主要研究方向：腹膜透析临床及基础研究，并发症的防治。血液净化相关手术的持续质量改进。完成各方式腹膜透析手术500余例，将术后机械性并发症降低至2%。血液透析导管通路手术1000余例。擅长：蛋白尿、血尿、肾功不全的诊治。各方式腹膜透析手术、长期管理及腹透管漂管、堵管等并发症的处理。急慢性肾功能不全、肾衰竭、肾性贫血、肾性骨病；原发性、继发性肾小球肾炎、肾病综合征、糖尿病肾病、高血压肾病、膜性肾病、IgA肾病、轻微病变性肾病、局灶节段性肾小球硬化、尿酸性肾病、遗传性肾病、泌尿系感染等。

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接诊医生：

2024-10-31 06:24:11

科普文章

口腔科之天疱疮

天疱疮是一种慢性、复发性、严重的表皮内棘刺松解性大疱性皮肤病。患者体内存在针对Ca[sup]2+[/sup]依赖的细胞间粘连分子——钙粘蛋白的抗体，因此，在正常皮肤或黏膜上出现松弛性水疱，尼氏征阳性。

病因

本病病因尚未完全明确，现认为是一种自身免疫性疾病。天疱疮的抗原主要是桥粒，抗体主要是IgG，可见四种IgG亚型，少数为IgA。抗体结合到表皮细胞上，导致棘刺松解。天疱疮抗原的cDNA序列与钙粘蛋白有明显的同源性，故天疱疮抗体也损害了表皮细胞间的粘连功能，导致棘刺松解。

临床表现

发病年龄差别很大，平均发病年龄是50～60岁，男女发病率相近。我国传统上将天疱疮分为四型：寻常型、增殖型、落叶型、红斑型。

1.寻常型天疱疮

是天疱疮中最常见的一型，半数以上患者先是口腔黏膜发生水疱和糜烂，而后出现皮肤损害，经久不愈。以后在外观正常的皮肤出现黄豆至核桃大的水疱，疱液清或稍浑，疱壁薄而松弛易破，尼氏征阳性。水疱破裂显露潮红糜烂面，有少许渗液或结痂，创面愈合慢，自觉灼痛，愈后留色素沉着和粟丘疹。水疱可以发生于全身任何部位，常见于头面、颈、胸背、腋下、腹股沟等处。可有甲营养不良和急性甲沟炎、甲下出血。妊娠期严重的天疱疮可出现早产、死胎。

2.增殖型天疱疮

发病年龄较年轻。皮损好发于脂溢部位，如头面、腋下、脐窝、胸背、阴股部等处。初起为松弛性水疱，极易破裂形成糜烂面和蕈样、乳头状增生，在摩擦部位尤为明显。损害表面有浆液或脓液渗出，覆有厚痂，周围有炎性红晕。损害聚集成群或扩大融合成片，有腥臭。皮肤损害可发生于黏膜损害前或损害后。自觉症状不明显。病程中由于继发细菌感染，有时有高热等症状。病变时重时轻，病程较寻常型长。

本病分两型：

（1）重型（Neumann型）皮损为水疱和大疱，破裂后肥厚性颗粒状的糜烂面，很容易出血，所形成的增殖性斑块处有血清和脓液渗出，四周围小脓疱。边界处糜烂形成新的增殖斑块，最后这些增殖性损害变得干燥、角化过度、皲裂。本型病程长，在糖皮质激素应用前很难自行缓解。

（2）轻型（Hallopeau型）早期皮损以脓疱而不是水疱为特征。疱破后形成增殖性斑块。斑块四周有小脓疱。在损害内可培养出多种细菌。本病慢性经过，病情轻，能自行缓解，预后良好。

3.落叶型天疱疮

多在头面、躯干外观正常皮肤上发生松弛大疱，尼氏征阳性，疱壁菲薄，极易破裂，很快干燥，结黄褐色薄痂，痂皮中心附着，边缘游离，痂下湿润，渐发展至全身。皮肤暗红，覆大量叶片状痂皮，有恶臭。有时无明显水疱而似剥脱性皮炎。口腔损害少见，毛发稀疏，常可脱光。指甲可见营养不良改变。自觉瘙痒或灼痛，全身症状轻重不一，可有发热、畏寒、精神障碍等。病程可持续10年以上，预后较好，易被糖皮质激素控制，部分患者可完全缓解。

4.红斑型天疱疮

又称Senear-Usher综合征。皮损发生于头部、前额、鼻、两颊、耳壳，有时胸背部、腋窝、腹股沟也可被侵犯，但很少累及四肢。头面部皮损类似盘状或系统性红斑狼疮、脂溢性皮炎。局限性红斑上有脂性鳞屑、黄痂。上述皮损出现一至数月后，胸背部和四肢突然发生松弛性大疱，疱壁薄，易破，糜烂面渐扩大，渗液较多，表面常结成污秽色、黑褐色痂和脂性厚痂，不易脱落，预后留棕褐色色素沉着。水疱此起彼伏，尼氏征阳性。一般无黏膜损害。自觉瘙痒，全身症状不明显。

诊断

诊断要点为皮肤上有松弛大疱，尼氏征阳性，常伴有黏膜损害，水疱基底涂片可见天疱疮细胞，组织病理改变有特征性，表皮内有棘刺松解。间接免疫荧光检查血清中有天疱疮抗体，水疱周围正常皮肤或新皮损直接免疫荧光检查，表皮细胞间有IgG和C3沉积。

治疗

1.一般支持治疗

极为重要，对损害广泛者应给予高蛋白饮食，补充多种维生素。注意水、电解质平衡，禁食者应由静脉补充。全身衰竭可多次小量输血或血浆。加强护理，注意皮肤清洁卫生，以减少创面继发感染，并防止发生压疮。

2.全身治疗

（1）糖皮质激素为治疗本病首选药物，尽量做到及时治疗，足量控制，正确减量，继用最小维持量。病情严重者可采用冲击疗法。应用糖皮质激素的患者，近半数死于糖皮质激素的并发症，如呼吸道感染、肺栓塞、糖尿病和消化道溃疡，故必须随时警惕其不良反应的发生，及时采取相应措施处理。

（2）免疫抑制剂可抑制自身抗体的形成，是本病主要的辅助治疗方法，与糖皮质激素联合应用，可提高疗效，减少激素用量。常用者为硫唑嘌呤和环磷酰胺。

（3）金制剂使用糖皮质激素控制病情后，可加用金制剂治疗。

（4）血浆交换疗法适用于病情严重、糖皮质激素和免疫抑制剂联合治疗无效、血中天疱疮抗体滴度高的患者，大剂量糖皮质激素治疗有副作用或疗效不明显时可选用。每周1或2次，每次交换1～2L，根据病情可连续进行4~10次。如与小剂量的糖皮质激素或免疫抑制剂并用效果最好。

（5）其他少数病例用以下药物治疗有效，如氨苯枫、磺胺吡胺、烟酰胺、四环素，单纯或与糖皮质激素联合使用。大剂量免疫球蛋白可是天疱疮很快缓解，但持续时间短。阿维A联合泼尼松治疗增殖型天疱疮。

3.局部治疗

注意口腔卫生，治疗牙周疾病。口腔糜烂可用2%硼酸溶液或1%过氧化氢每3～4小时漱口一次。疼痛明显时可在进食前涂用3%苯唑卡因硼酸甘油溶液，或1%普鲁卡因液含漱。皮损少时，糜烂面外用锌氧油、2%甲紫锌氧油。红斑损害可外用糖皮质激素霜。损害广泛时，注意避免条件致病菌感染，如渗液结痂较多，病人一般情况好，可采取药浴，如1：10000高锰酸钾液进行药浴。外用抗生素、抗真菌制剂。

患者应积极配合医生的治疗，定期复查，监测病情。

患者应遵从医嘱按时定量服用药物，切忌擅自停药或换药，也不要随意改变药物剂量。

有口腔损害的患者应注意口腔卫生和护理。

家庭护理

家属应做好患者的心理工作，帮助患者积极治疗。应按医生的建议，对患者的皮损进行护理。

日常生活管理

患者应注意个人卫生，保持皮肤清洁。

忌大蒜。治疗期间饮食宜清淡，食用易消化、营养丰富的食物。

注意口腔卫生，有口腔损害的，应避免坚硬、辛辣刺激类食物。使用漱口水清洁口腔。

长期服用糖皮质激素的患者由于骨质疏松

，应避免持重物，尤其是弯腰持重。

生活规律、劳逸结合，避免过劳。

日常病情监测

患者应密切注意皮肤黏膜情况，如有否新出水疱，口腔黏膜是否易破等。

特殊注意事项

治疗过程中应严格遵照医嘱用药，不要擅自停药或换药、减药，也不可随意改变药物剂量，尤其在使用糖皮质激素过程中，随意加减药物或骤然停药可能造成病情反复、甚至加重。

预防

天疱疮并无明确的诱因，无法进行有效的预防。

天疱疮是个重症、慢性的自身免疫性疾病，经过3~5年治疗，是可以达到临床治愈，甚至完全停药的。改善本病预后的关键是早诊断、早治疗。

此外，以下因素可能影响预后：开始治疗时疾病的严重程度，病损范围，进展快慢；控制病情所需皮质激素剂量；天疱疮类型，以寻常型最重；高龄；基础疾病，如糖尿病

、高血压

等；合理减药，长期维持治疗；长期服用激素或免疫抑制剂可能产生的不良反应。

天疱疮应由专科医生诊治，并定期复诊，长期随访。

危害性

除了天疱疮本身可引起严重的皮肤黏膜损害，引起水电解质紊乱、感染等多种可危及生命的并发症之外，长期使用糖皮质激素和/或免疫抑制剂的治疗可造成诸多不良反应。

后遗症

主要为长期使用糖皮质激素和/或免疫抑制剂治疗的不良反应，如股骨头无菌坏死等。

并发症

皮肤感染：天疱疮皮损为开放性的糜烂，从而引发细菌、真菌等感染。严重时可发生脓毒血症，危及生命；

水电解质紊乱：严重天疱疮患者体表大面积的糜烂，可造成体液大量丢失，加之糖皮质激素的储钠排钾作用，可引发水电解质紊乱、低蛋白血症

；

长期服用糖皮质激素和/或免疫抑制剂治疗的不良反应，如高血压、糖尿病、易骨折

、股骨头无菌环死等；

或出现发烧、咳嗽、黑便、走路时髋部疼痛等症状，提示可能出现药物的不良反应，应请专科医生在全面评估病情后，制定新的治疗方案，包括应用利妥昔单抗等。

复发

天疱疮是复杂疾病，治疗过程中需定期随访，医生会根据病情变化及时调整治疗方案。

天疱疮是可以复发的，骤然停药、减药过快是引起复发最常见的原因。

天疱疮患者在治疗期间，若出现水疱短期内增多，糜烂面增大，表明病情有反复。

天疱疮属于自身免疫性疾病，属于慢性的、复发性的、皮肤黏膜上的疾病，一般表现在正常的皮肤黏膜上发生的松弛性的水疱，尼氏征阳性，尼氏征阳性指这个水疱往前方推动，它可以随着推移，水疱直接窜到前方，而疱壁还是正常的，但是这种水泡比较容易破裂，有的时候看不到水疱，就出现了糜烂面。分型主要有寻常型天疱疮、红斑型天疱疮、增殖型天疱疮和落叶型天疱疮。寻常型天胞疮主要好发在容易受摩擦或挤压的部位，红斑型天疱疮多发生在皮脂腺分泌比较旺盛的部位，增殖型天疱疮的表现是糜烂面之后可能出现增殖，落叶型天疱疮主要发生在头面和躯干上，水疱更薄，上面有黄褐色油腻性的斑片。

天疱疮的预后

预后

天疱疮是个重症、慢性的自身免疫性疾病，经过 3~5 年治疗，是可以达到临床治愈，甚至完全停药的。改善本病预后的关键是早诊断、早治疗。

此外，以下因素可能影响预后：

开始治疗时疾病的严重程度，病损范围，进展快慢；

控制病情所需皮质激素剂量；

天疱疮类型，以寻常型最重；

高龄；

基础疾病，如糖尿病、高血压等；

合理减药，长期维持治疗；

长期服用激素或免疫抑制剂可能产生的不良反应。

天疱疮应由专科医生诊治，并定期复诊，长期随访。

危害性

除了天疱疮本身可引起严重的皮肤黏膜损害，引起水电解质紊乱、感染等多种可危及生命的并发症之外，长期使用糖皮质激素和/或免疫抑制剂的治疗可造成诸多不良反应。

后遗症

主要为长期使用糖皮质激素和/或免疫抑制剂治疗的不良反应

病例31-2023：一名79岁男性，身体不自主运动，一过性反应迟钝

以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。

Presentation of Case

Dr. Carrie Chui (Neurology): A 79-year-old man was admitted to this hospital because of involuntary movements on the left side and transient unresponsiveness.

The patient had been in his usual state of health until 9 months before admission, when involuntary movements of the left shoulder and left side of the face developed. The movements were described by the patient as twitching, were not associated with a change in the level of consciousness, and resolved after 1 to 2 minutes. During the next 6 months, the patient had similar episodes approximately once per month, but the episodes increased in duration, lasting 5 to 6 minutes.

Three months before admission, the episodes of involuntary movements increased in frequency, and the patient was evaluated by his primary care physician. The physical examination was normal. Results of kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 129 mmol per liter (reference range, 135 to 145). There was a history of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, and the sodium level was similar to levels obtained during the past 4 years. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head (Figure 1A), performed before and after the administration of intravenous contrast material, revealed a focus of enhancement in the right middle frontal gyrus that was thought to be a small vascular anomaly. Electroencephalography (EEG), performed with the patient in awake and drowsy states, revealed rare, brief, focal slowing in the left temporal lobe during drowsiness; no epileptiform abnormalities were present.

Figure 1

MRI of the Head and CT Angiogram of the Head and Neck.

Two months before admission, the patient was evaluated in the epilepsy clinic affiliated with this hospital. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements had increased in both frequency and duration, occurring once or twice per day and lasting approximately 10 minutes. Episodes began with tingling and numbness in the left leg that prompted the patient to voluntarily stomp the left foot to relieve the uncomfortable sensation. Then, the patient had involuntary movements that he described as an uncontrollable invisible force moving the left leg and arm, with hyperextension of the arm backward and pronation of the wrist. There was associated numbness in the distal portions of the left third, fourth, and fifth fingers and involuntary movement of the left cheek. No prodromal symptoms occurred. The patient had awareness during the episodes, and after the episodes, he felt fatigued but had a normal level of consciousness, without confusion. The examination in the epilepsy clinic was normal. A diagnosis of seizure disorder was considered, and treatment with levetiracetam was started.

Three weeks before admission, the patient was again evaluated in the epilepsy clinic. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements still occurred on a daily basis but had decreased in duration and involved only the left leg, without abnormal movements of the arm or face. Dizziness, headache, and weakness had developed and were attributed to the use of levetiracetam. The patient’s family had recorded a video of one of the episodes of involuntary movements. After reviewing the video, the patient’s neurologist thought that the episodes were less likely to be caused by seizures and more consistent with choreoathetoid movements. Cross-tapering of medications — with the simultaneous administration of levetiracetam in decreasing doses and clobazam in increasing doses — was initiated, and the patient was referred to the movement disorders clinic affiliated with this hospital.

On the morning of admission, an episode of involuntary movements of the left leg and left shoulder occurred and persisted for 1 hour. Several hours after the symptoms abated, the patient’s wife found the patient to be unresponsive; he was sitting in a chair. Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was responsive. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 180 mg per deciliter (10.0 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 110/80 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.

In the emergency department, the patient reported dysuria and increased urinary frequency. The patient’s daughter noted that he had been more anxious during the past 3 years and occasionally had trouble with memory. Other medical history included Barrett’s esophagus, benign prostatic hypertrophy, chronic hepatitis B virus infection, eczema, gastroesophageal reflux disease, hypertension, nonischemic cardiomyopathy, and osteoporosis. There was no history of head trauma or extended loss of consciousness. Medications included aspirin, atorvastatin, doxazosin, finasteride, omeprazole, metoprolol, sacubitril, and valsartan. There were no known drug allergies. The patient was a lifelong nonsmoker and drank alcohol rarely; he did not use illicit drugs. His mother had had gastric cancer, and his sister had had esophageal cancer; there was no family history of seizures.

On examination, the temporal temperature was 36.8°C, the blood pressure 152/97 mm Hg, the pulse 65 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 16 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 96% while the patient was breathing ambient air. The body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) was 21.7. The blood pressure decreased to 130/63 mm Hg with standing. The patient was alert and interactive. The lower jaw was held to the left, but the nasolabial folds and smile were symmetric with activation. There were nonrhythmic, nonstereotyped, writhing movements of the left arm. Tone was normal, and strength was assessed as 5 out of 5 in the arms and legs. Results of liver-function and kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 125 mmol per liter. The lactate level was 2.1 mmol per liter (19 mg per deciliter; reference range, 0.5 to 2.0 mmol per liter [5 to 18 mg per deciliter]). The urinalysis was normal. Intravenous fluids were administered. Imaging studies were obtained.

Dr. Rajiv Gupta: Computed tomographic (CT) angiography of the head and neck (Figure 1B) revealed extensively calcified plaque with severe stenosis of the distal right common carotid artery (CCA), extending into the proximal right internal carotid artery (ICA), as well as stenosis of the right and left paraclinoid ICAs and the left vertebral artery at its origin. There was no vascular abnormality on the CT angiogram that corresponded to the abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus seen on the previous MRI.

Dr. Chui: The patient was admitted to the hospital. On the second hospital day, the sodium level had increased to 130 mmol per liter, and the lactate level was normal. Additional imaging studies were obtained.

Dr. Gupta: MRI of the head showed no evidence of acute infarction. The focus of enhancement in the right frontal lobe that had been noted previously was not seen on the current MRI.

Dr. Chui: Blood levels of thyrotropin, cobalamin, and glycated hemoglobin and results of coagulation tests were normal. Screening tests for Lyme disease, tuberculosis, and syphilis were negative, as were tests for antibodies to cardiolipin and β₂-glycoprotein. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive, at a titer of 1:160 in a homogeneous pattern. During a physical therapy session, the patient had abnormal movements of the left leg, left arm, and left side of the face. The abnormal movements diminished when the patient used distraction techniques, such as thigh tapping, finger snapping, and walking while holding a glass of water.

The transient unresponsiveness that led to the patient’s admission was attributed to a combination of sedation from clobazam and hypovolemia. Treatment with clobazam was stopped, and hydration was encouraged. A diagnosis of functional neurologic disorder was considered; outpatient physical therapy with continued use of distraction techniques was recommended. The patient was discharged home on the third hospital day.

Episodes of involuntary movements continued to occur on a daily basis at home. Two weeks after discharge, when the patient was doing exercises while sitting in a chair and having a conversation with his wife, he suddenly stopped talking. She found him slumped in the chair with his eyes closed, no longer exercising. When she asked him questions, he repeatedly said “yes.” Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was alert, diaphoretic, and nonverbal. He had a facial droop on the left side and a right gaze preference. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 130 mg per deciliter (7.2 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 120/60 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.

In the emergency department, the temporal temperature was 36.6°C, the blood pressure 143/63 mm Hg, the pulse 66 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 18 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 98% while the patient was breathing ambient air. He was alert and interactive. There was a facial droop on the left side. There was no effort against gravity in the left arm. The patient was able to lift the left leg off the bed for 1 to 2 seconds. He had a right gaze deviation that could not be overcome and mild dysarthria. The remainder of the examination was normal. A diagnosis of stroke was considered, and emergency CT angiography was performed.

Dr. Gupta: CT angiography showed no evidence of acute territorial infarction and no changes in cerebrovascular disease.

Dr. Chui: On repeat physical examination performed after CT angiography, the gaze deviation and dysarthria had resolved, and strength was normal. Mild facial paralysis was present.

A diagnosis was made.

Differential Diagnosis

Dr. Albert Y. Hung: This 79-year-old man initially presented with involuntary movements of the left shoulder and face without associated loss of consciousness. Diagnosis of an unusual movement disorder, especially one that is present episodically, can be challenging. Videos brought in by the patient can be very useful.¹ Most movement disorders result from abnormal functioning of extrapyramidal circuits involving the basal ganglia, rather than a specific neuroanatomical lesion, and the first step toward diagnosis is to identify the type of abnormal movements.²

Four salient aspects of this patient’s involuntary movements can help in characterizing the movement disorder before generating a differential diagnosis. First, the movements were paroxysmal, lasting for short periods of time with resolution between episodes. Second, the movements were nonstereotyped, appearing randomly and variably. Third, the movements were restricted to the left side of his body throughout the course, localizing the disease process to the right cerebral hemisphere. Finally, the symptoms were progressive, increasing in both duration and frequency.

Movement Disorders

This patient had abnormal involuntary movements, symptoms indicative of a hyperkinetic movement disorder. Tremor, the most common hyperkinetic disorder, is unlikely because the patient did not have rhythmic movements. Dystonia is also unlikely, because he did not have sustained muscle contractions that were causing twisting or abnormal postures of the legs, arms, head, neck, or face. Although the patient initially described the movements as twitching, his later descriptions are not suggestive of myoclonus or tics, which manifest as sudden, rapid, recurrent movements.

This patient’s neurologist described the involuntary movements as “choreoathetoid” after reviewing a video of an episode. Chorea, athetosis, and ballism make up a spectrum of involuntary movements that often occur in combination. Chorea refers to involuntary movements that are “dancelike” — irregular, random, unintended, and flowing from one body part to another. When these movements are slow and writhing (with a lower amplitude) and involve the distal limbs, the term athetosis is used. The presence of both chorea and athetosis in the same patient is referred to as choreoathetosis. When the movements are fast and flinging (with a higher amplitude) and involve the proximal limbs, the term ballism is used. Although the description of this patient’s movements was not clearly suggestive of ballism, hemichorea and hemiballismus often occur together.

The term dyskinesia can refer to any abnormal movements and is often used to describe hyperkinetic disorders that are induced by specific drugs, such as tardive dyskinesia induced by dopamine antagonists or dyskinesia induced by levodopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Often, dyskinesia manifests as chorea or choreoathetoid movements, but chorea and dyskinesia are not synonymous. This patient appears to have involuntary dyskinesia with choreoathetosis as the primary phenomenology. Before constructing a differential diagnosis for dyskinesia in this patient, I will consider two conditions that mimic dyskinesia: seizures and functional movement disorder.

Seizures

Various movement disorders may be mistaken for seizures, although these movement disorders are not associated with EEG abnormalities during the episode. Patients with some forms of epilepsy may present with abnormal movements without other features that are typically associated with seizures, such as aura, change in responsiveness, incontinence, or a postictal state.^3,4 Seizures were initially suspected in this patient, and he was referred to the epilepsy clinic. Recurrent focal seizures were probably suspected because of the transient nature of the episodes. Initial MRI had shown a small abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus, but this finding was not seen on follow-up imaging, which makes it unlikely to be related to the overall presentation. Baseline EEG had shown only brief left temporal slowing, without epileptiform abnormalities. The EEG was an interictal study, so the findings do not rule out seizures. However, the slowing was ipsilateral to the abnormal movements, so it is unlikely to be related to the episodes. In addition, the patient’s involuntary movements were nonstereotyped and nonrhythmic, which makes his presentation unlikely to be due to a seizure disorder.

Functional Movement Disorder

Because this patient’s movements diminished with the use of distraction techniques, a diagnosis of functional movement disorder was considered. Most cases of functional movement disorder begin abruptly after a trigger, such as a mild physical injury or illness; a psychological stressor can be present but is not required for diagnosis. Symptoms are typically most severe around the time of onset and may wax and wane over time. Although distractibility is a finding associated with functional disorders, abnormal movements that occur with nonfunctional syndromes can sometimes be suppressed by action or incorporated into voluntary movements in a manner that may appear distractible. Several clinical features in this patient make a diagnosis of functional disorder unlikely. Functional movement disorder is more common in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 40 years.⁵ In addition, tremor is the most common clinical phenotype seen in patients with functional movement disorder; chorea or choreoathetosis, which was seen in this patient, is very unusual in patients with functional movement disorder. Overall, functional movement disorder is unlikely to explain this patient’s presentation.

Dyskinesia

Primary paroxysmal dyskinesia refers to a group of heterogeneous syndromes characterized by recurrent involuntary movements that occur episodically and abruptly, without loss of consciousness.⁶ These disorders usually begin in childhood or young adulthood. Both the age of this patient and the described phenomenology make a diagnosis of primary paroxysmal dyskinesia unlikely.

The differential diagnosis in this case is therefore focused on causes of secondary dyskinesia, of which there are many.⁷ MRI ruled out the presence of a mass lesion suggestive of cancer. The patient had no history of acute illness suggestive of a viral or other infectious encephalitis, and there was no history of trauma or exposure to drugs or other toxins. Although his daughter mentioned trouble with memory, there was no compelling history suggestive of a neurodegenerative disease.

A common metabolic cause of secondary dyskinesia is diabetic striatopathy, a syndrome involving the acute-to-subacute onset of chorea and ballism in the context of hyperglycemia.⁸ This syndrome can occur as the initial manifestation of type 2 diabetes mellitus or as a complication of poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetic striatopathy is more likely to develop in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 70 years. Most patients present with hemichorea and hemiballismus, rather than bilateral symptoms. CT shows hyperdensity, and T1-weighted MRI shows hyperintensity, in the contralateral basal ganglia. However, this patient had no history of diabetes and had a normal blood glycated hemoglobin level, features that rule out a diagnosis of diabetic striatopathy.

Choreiform movements can also be a manifestation of autoimmune conditions.⁹ This patient’s initial presentation with unilateral shoulder and face movements would have suggested the possibility of faciobrachial dystonic seizures associated with anti–leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 (anti-LGI1) encephalitis.¹⁰ This condition is often associated with hyponatremia, which was present in this patient. However, as the case evolved, leg involvement and sensory changes developed that would be atypical for anti-LGI1 encephalitis.

One key clue in this case is that the patient did not have an isolated movement disorder. In addition to motor symptoms, he had a variety of sensory symptoms involving both the left arm and the left leg. His first hospital admission was precipitated by an episode of unresponsiveness. The clinical event that led to his second presentation to the emergency department was distinctly different: an acute onset of speech difficulty accompanied by left hemiparesis and right gaze deviation that was worrisome for an acute right middle cerebral artery (MCA) syndrome. The symptoms resolved without intervention, which indicates that he may have had an acute transient ischemic attack (TIA). The most relevant imaging finding was severe cerebrovascular disease, including severe stenosis of the distal right CCA and proximal right ICA. Could this patient’s movement disorder be explained by a vascular lesion?

Limb-Shaking TIAs

Limb-shaking TIAs were first described by C. Miller Fisher in 1962.¹¹ In most case reports, these episodes are associated with high-grade stenosis of the ICA, which was seen in this patient.^12,13 The mechanism is thought to be cerebral hypoperfusion, and changes in posture or head position that decrease cerebral blood flow can precipitate these episodes. In this patient, the first episode of unresponsiveness that led to hospital admission occurred when he was sitting. He then had an acute episode involving right gaze preference that was provoked by exercise and was very suggestive of a TIA in the right MCA territory. These findings are highly suggestive of a diagnosis of limb-shaking TIAs, and I would refer this patient for emergency carotid endarterectomy.

Clinical Impression and Initial Management

Dr. Scott B. Silverman: When I evaluated this patient, his transient right gaze preference and left hemiparesis were consistent with a right MCA syndrome due to a TIA from symptomatic severe stenosis of the right ICA. The mechanism of this event was either artery-to-artery embolism or hypoperfusion. His previous, recurrent episodes of transient choreoathetosis on the left side that had occurred mainly while he was sitting, standing, or exercising were consistent with limb-shaking TIAs from hypoperfusion or low flow.

The pathogenesis of a low-flow state related to severe carotid stenosis resulting in limb-shaking TIAs is described in a small case series.¹⁴ In six out of eight patients, the transient, stereotyped, involuntary movements were eliminated with carotid artery revascularization. Positional cerebral ischemia in patients without orthostatic hypotension has been described.¹⁵

Treatment with atorvastatin was continued, the dose of aspirin was increased to 325 mg per day, and an intravenous heparin infusion was started. The strategy of permissive hypertension was used, with high blood pressure allowed to a maximum systolic blood pressure of 180 mm Hg. The patient was admitted to the stroke service, and carotid artery duplex ultrasonography was performed.

Dr. Gupta: Doppler ultrasonography of the carotid arteries (Figure 2) revealed markedly elevated Doppler flow velocities within the proximal right ICA. There was a parvus et tardus waveform in the distal right ICA, a finding indicative of low flow related to the more proximal high-grade stenosis. The Doppler waveform contours had poststenotic turbulence.

Figure 2

Doppler Ultrasound Image.

Dr. Silverman: The vascular surgery service was consulted, and the patient underwent right carotid endarterectomy.

Clinical Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.

Dr. Albert Y. Hung’s Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks due to severe carotid stenosis, with secondary paroxysmal dyskinesia.

Pathological Discussion

Dr. Caroline F. Hilburn: The endarterectomy specimen included the carotid bifurcation and was notable for firm arterial walls, a finding consistent with calcification. On gross examination (Figure 3A), a large plaque was centered at the carotid bifurcation and protruded into the lumen, resulting in a maximal luminal stenosis of 80%. The plaque had an irregular and focally friable surface. On microscopic examination (Figure 3B), the plaque was characterized by extensive calcification. Some regions of the plaque had a smooth, healed fibrous cap, whereas other regions had an irregular surface suggestive of ulceration, which indicated potential sites of plaque rupture. Multiple smaller calcified plaques were present, affecting both branches of the artery.

Figure 3

Endarterectomy Specimen.

Pathological Diagnosis

Complex atherosclerotic plaque with portions of attached media.

Additional Management

Dr. Silverman: After the procedure, the patient had an uneventful recovery and was discharged home on the fifth hospital day. He was seen 1 month after discharge in the stroke prevention clinic. There had been no further episodes of involuntary movements or choreoathetosis and no stroke or TIA. The patient continues to take aspirin, atorvastatin, and antihypertensive medications.

Final Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.

病例28-2024：一名75岁女性，患有水肿、关节炎和蛋白尿

以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。

Presentation of Case

Dr. Christine M. Parsons (Medicine): A 75-year-old woman was evaluated at this hospital because of arthritis, abdominal pain, edema, malaise, and fever.

Three weeks before the current admission, the patient noticed waxing and waning “throbbing” pain in the right upper abdomen, which she rated at 9 (on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 indicating the most severe pain) at its maximal intensity. The pain was associated with nausea and fever with a temperature of up to 39.0°C. Pain worsened after food consumption and was relieved with acetaminophen. During the 3 weeks before the current admission, edema developed in both legs; it had started at the ankles and gradually progressed upward to the hips. When the edema began to affect her ambulation, she presented to the emergency department of this hospital.

A review of systems that was obtained from the patient and her family was notable for intermittent fever, abdominal bloating, anorexia, and fatigue that had progressed during the previous 3 weeks. The patient reported new orthopnea and nonproductive cough. Approximately 4 weeks earlier, she had had diarrhea for several days. During the 6 weeks before the current admission, the patient had lost 9 kg unintentionally; she also had had pain in the wrists and hands, 3 days of burning and dryness of the eyes, and diffuse myalgias. She had not had night sweats, dry mouth, jaw claudication, vision changes, urinary symptoms, or oral, nasal, or genital ulcers.

The patient’s medical history was notable for multiple myeloma (for which treatment with thalidomide and melphalan had been initiated 2 years earlier and was stopped approximately 1 year before the current admission); hypothyroidism; chikungunya virus infection (diagnosed 7 years earlier); seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis affecting the hands, wrists, elbows, and shoulders (diagnosed 3 years earlier); vitiligo; and osteoarthritis of the right hip, for which she had undergone arthroplasty. Evidence of gastritis was reportedly seen on endoscopy that had been performed 6 months earlier. Medications included daily treatment with levothyroxine and acetaminophen and pipazethate hydrochloride as needed for cough. The patient consumed chamomile and horsetail herbal teas. She had no known allergies to medications, but she had been advised not to take nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after her diagnosis of multiple myeloma.

Approximately 5 months before the current admission, the patient had emigrated from Central America. She lived with her daughter and grandchildren in an urban area of New England. She had previously worked in health care. She had no history of alcohol, tobacco, or other substance use. There was no family history of cancer or autoimmune, renal, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, or cardiac disease.

On examination, the temporal temperature was 37.1°C, the heart rate 106 beats per minute, the blood pressure 152/67 mm Hg, and the oxygen saturation 100% while the patient was breathing ambient air. She had a frail appearance and bitemporal cachexia. The weight was 41 kg and the body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) 15.2. Her dentition was poor; most of the teeth were missing, caries were present in the remaining teeth, and the mucous membranes were dry. She had abdominal tenderness on the right side and mild abdominal distention, without organomegaly or guarding. Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy was palpable. Infrequent inspiratory wheezing was noted.

The patient had swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, ulnar deviation, and distal hyperextensibility of the thumbs (Fig. 1). Subcutaneous nodules were observed on the proximal interphalangeal joints of the second and third fingers of the right hand and on the proximal interphalangeal joint of the fourth finger of the left hand. Synovial thickening of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the second fingers was noted. There was mild swelling and tenderness of the wrists. She had pain with flexion of the shoulders and right hip, and there was subtle swelling of the shoulders and right knee. Pitting edema (3+) and vitiligo were noted on the legs. No sclerodactyly, digital pitting, telangiectasias, appreciable calcinosis, nodules, nail changes (including pitting), or tophi were present. The remainder of the examination was normal.

Figure 1

Photograph of the Hands.

The blood levels of glucose, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, globulin, lactate, lipase, magnesium, and phosphorus were normal, as were the prothrombin time and international normalized ratio; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. Urinalysis showed 3+ protein and 3+ blood, and microscopic examination of the sediment revealed 5 to 10 red cells per high-power field and granular casts. Urine and blood were obtained for culture. An electrocardiogram met (at a borderline level) the voltage criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy.

Table 1

Laboratory Data.

Dr. Rene Balza Romero: Computed tomography (CT) of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, performed after the intravenous administration of contrast material, revealed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules (including clusters in the right middle lobe and patchy and ground-glass opacities in the left upper lobe), trace pleural effusion in the left lung, coronary and valvular calcifications, and trace pericardial effusion, ascites, and anasarca. The scans also showed slight enlargement of the axillary lymph nodes (up to 11 mm in the short axis) bilaterally and a chronic-appearing compression fracture involving the T12 vertebral body.

Dr. Parsons: Morphine and lactated Ringer’s solution were administered intravenously. On the second day in the emergency department (also referred to as hospital day 2), the blood levels of haptoglobin, folate, and vitamin B₁₂ were normal; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. A rapid antigen test for malaria was positive. Wright–Giemsa staining of thick and thin peripheral-blood smears was negative for parasites; the smears also showed Döhle bodies and basophilic stippling. Antigliadin antibodies and anti–tissue transglutaminase antibodies were not detected. Tests for hepatitis A IgG and hepatitis C antibodies were positive. Tests for hepatitis B core and surface antibodies were negative. A test for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) was negative.

Findings on abdominal ultrasound imaging performed on the second day (Fig. 2A and 2B) were notable for a small volume of ascites and kidneys with echogenic parenchyma. Ultrasonography of the legs showed no deep venous thrombosis. An echocardiogram showed normal ventricular size and function, aortic sclerosis with mild aortic insufficiency, moderate tricuspid regurgitation, a right ventricular systolic pressure of 39 mm Hg, and a small circumferential pericardial effusion. Intravenous hydromorphone was administered, and the patient was admitted to the hospital.

Figure 2

Imaging Studies of the Abdomen and Hands.

On the third day (also referred to as hospital day 3), nucleic acid testing for cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, and hepatitis C virus was negative, and a stool antigen test for Helicobacter pylori was negative. An interferon-γ release assay for Mycobacterium tuberculosis was also negative. Oral acetaminophen and ivermectin and intravenous hydromorphone and furosemide were administered.

Dr. Balza Romero: Radiographs of the hands (Fig. 2C through 2F) showed joint-space narrowing of both radiocarpal joints and proximal interphalangeal erosions involving both hands. Radiographs of the shoulders showed arthritis of the glenohumeral joint and alignment suggestive of a tear of the right rotator cuff. A radiograph of the pelvis showed diffuse joint-space narrowing of the left hip, without osteophytosis, and an intact right hip prosthesis.

Dr. Parsons: Diagnostic tests were performed, and management decisions were made.

Differential Diagnosis

Dr. Beth L. Jonas: This patient is a 75-year-old woman who recently emigrated from Central America. She presented to this hospital with a multisystem disease involving the respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and musculoskeletal systems. Her medical history is notable for seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and multiple myeloma, which had been treated with melphalan and thalidomide. Relevant clinical features on presentation include unintended weight loss and cachexia, axillary lymphadenopathy, serositis, cytopenia in two cell lines, hypocomplementemia, and elevated serum free kappa and lambda light-chain levels (with a normal free light-chain ratio) with no monoclonal spike. The white-cell count was elevated, but she had no eosinophilia. CT images of the chest showed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules. With respect to the patient’s anemia, no schistocytes were present, the haptoglobin level was normal, and the iron studies were unremarkable. These findings, in combination with the elevated ferritin level, indicate anemia of chronic inflammation. The renal findings are most salient in the context of the patient’s hypertension, anasarca, elevated cystatin C level, active urinary sediment with proteinuria in the nephrotic range, and small, echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography.

In constructing a differential diagnosis, I will consider medication use, cancer, infectious disease, and autoimmune disease. Medications can be eliminated as the cause of this patient’s illness, since she was taking only levothyroxine, acetaminophen, and the antitussive agent pipazethate.

Cancer

The patient has a history of multiple myeloma, which may manifest with a multisystem disease involving the kidneys, but serum protein electrophoresis showed no monoclonal protein. Given the presence of nephrotic syndrome in the context of multiple myeloma, systemic immunoglobulin light-chain amyloidosis would be highest on the differential diagnosis with respect to cancer; however, the patient’s normal light-chain ratio makes this diagnosis unlikely. The development of myeloid neoplasms, such as acute myeloid leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, and myeloproliferative neoplasms, is important to consider in the context of previous treatment with alkylating agents,¹ which this patient had received. However, the peripheral-blood smear showed no findings that would indicate a hematologic cancer, and such a diagnosis would not explain the patient’s acute kidney injury with nephrotic-range proteinuria.

Infectious Disease

Several features of this patient’s case warrant special consideration, including her history of immunosuppression due to rheumatoid arthritis and to previously treated myeloma, along with the fact that she had emigrated from Central America, where certain infections may be prevalent. Infection with hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, HIV-1 and HIV-2, cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, H. pylori, and M. tuberculosis can be ruled out on the basis of laboratory studies. A rapid antigen test for plasmodium species was reported to be positive, but this assay has a known cross-reactivity with rheumatoid factor.² Moreover, the thick and thin peripheral-blood smears were negative. Thus, malaria would be an unlikely diagnosis.

The patient has a history of infection with chikungunya virus, an arbovirus transmitted by a mosquito vector that has been responsible for large epidemics in the Americas since 2013.³ Acute symptoms include fever, rash, arthralgia, and myalgia. The development of a chronic arthritis that may meet the classification criteria for rheumatoid arthritis, as defined by the American College of Rheumatology and the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology, has been reported in up to 60% of patients infected with chikungunya virus.^4,5 In the context of this discussion, I considered whether chikungunya virus infection could be the cause of this patient’s symptoms, since this infection occurred before the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. However, the degree of erosion and loss of joint space that was visible on radiographs would be most unusual for arthritis associated with chikungunya virus infection and would not explain the renal manifestations.

Strongyloidiasis is a helminth infection (caused by Strongyloides stercoralis) that is widespread in developing countries. Infection usually occurs through contact with soil, and most affected persons are asymptomatic. However, in immunosuppressed persons, strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome or a disseminated infection can develop as a consequence of accelerated autoinfection.⁶ The clinical presentation of strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome can include gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, constipation, nausea, or vomiting), respiratory symptoms (cough, dyspnea, or wheezing), and rash due to migration of larvae through the subcutaneous tissues. Of note, only a minority of patients present with eosinophilia. Several case reports describe the development of nephrotic-range proteinuria, thrombotic microangiopathy, and IgA vasculitis in patients with strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome.^7-9 However, strongyloidiasis would not explain this patient’s cytopenias and hypocomplementemia.

Autoimmune Disease

The patient has a 3-year history of rheumatoid arthritis, although her clinical features of swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, and joint instability suggest a longer duration of disease. We do not know whether she had received previous treatment with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs or biologic agents, but the possible use of such treatments may be a consideration with respect to her progression of disease and overall degree of immunosuppression. The blood levels of rheumatoid factor and anti–cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies were elevated, and radiographs of the hands showed erosive disease, although there was a relative paucity of metacarpophalangeal findings. A review of systems was negative for dry mouth, but her physical examination showed poor dentition and dry mouth — findings that make secondary Sjögren’s syndrome a consideration.

Renal disease can occur in patients with Sjögren’s syndrome. The two most typical presentations are tubulointerstitial nephritis and, less commonly, nephritic syndrome (membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis related to cryoglobulinemia). Tubulointerstitial nephritis may manifest with renal disease of varying severity, usually with a bland urinary sediment and often with abnormalities of tubular function such as distal renal tubular acidosis. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis caused by cryoglobulinemia is the most common glomerular disease associated with Sjögren’s syndrome. Although nephrotic-range proteinuria can occur with Sjögren’s syndrome, it is relatively uncommon.¹⁰ Renal disease is uncommon in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and is usually related to coexisting cardiovascular conditions. Medications used in the treatment of autoimmune disease — mainly nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs — may be associated with renal disease, but I would not expect the presence of an active urinary sediment, as was seen in this patient.

Amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis, a condition that is rare in the era of aggressive management of rheumatoid arthritis, has been described in patients with severe, long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis. Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a protein that is produced in the liver in response to chronic inflammation associated with interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the context of chronic infections, autoimmune disease (classically rheumatoid arthritis), autoinflammatory disease, and cancers including renal cell carcinoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.¹¹ Signs and symptoms of AA amyloidosis are related to the deposition of the protein in organs, and patients often present with multisystem signs and symptoms. The kidney is the organ that is most often affected, but deposition can occur in the heart, gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and lungs. Proteinuria is the first clinical manifestation in almost 95% of patients with AA amyloidosis, and 50% of affected patients present with nephrotic syndrome.¹² The urinary sediment is generally bland, and complement levels in the blood are normal. AA amyloidosis remains on the differential diagnosis in this patient, but it would not completely explain her renal disease.

Hypocomplementemia

The key to this case is understanding the cause of this patient’s hypocomplementemia. Hypocomplementemia can be due to decreased complement production in the context of liver disease, congenital complement deficiency, or increased complement consumption resulting from activation of the innate immune system. This patient has no history of chronic liver disease and her laboratory test results indicated good hepatic synthetic function. Classical complement deficiency (including C4 deficiency) that begins early in life is associated with autoimmune disease, and early C3 deficiency is characterized by severe pyogenic infections. It would be unusual for a patient of this age to be deficient in both C3 and C4 without earlier clinical consequences. I therefore concluded that the hypocomplementemia in this case was related to complement consumption.

Rheumatic diseases that may be associated with prominent renal manifestations include antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody–associated vasculitis, systemic sclerosis with renal crisis, cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, antiglomerular basement membrane disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Of those conditions, SLE would be the most likely to be manifested by an active urinary sediment and nephrotic-range proteinuria with consumption of both C3 and C4 in the context of fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis. This patient’s fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis also fit with this diagnosis.¹³

Because the patient has long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, a diagnosis of AA amyloidosis is strongly suspected. Moreover, given the presence of thrombocytopenia, hypocomplementemia, and an active urinary sediment, I would recommend a kidney biopsy to evaluate for lupus nephritis and AA amyloidosis.

Dr. Beth L. Jonas’s Diagnosis

Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus with amyloid A amyloidosis.

Pathological Discussion

Dr. Claire Trivin-Avillach: Testing for autoimmune antibodies was performed. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:5120 with a homogeneous pattern, and a test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:2560.

The diagnostic procedure in this case was a core-needle biopsy of the kidney. Examination of the specimen with light microscopy revealed 20 glomeruli, 45% of which were globally sclerosed, along with fibrosis involving approximately 60% of the interstitium and tubular atrophy. Diffusely enlarged glomeruli with thickened capillary walls and an expanded mesangium were weakly positive on periodic acid–Schiff staining; the glomeruli stained pale blue on Masson’s trichrome staining. Congo red staining revealed metachromatic salmon-colored deposition involving the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium, which was associated with apple-green birefringence when viewed under polarized light (Fig. 3A). In addition, mesangial and endocapillary hypercellularity was identified in approximately 30% of the nonsclerosed glomeruli and was associated with karyorrhexis (Fig. 3B). One cellular crescent was also detected. These features are characteristic of active proliferative glomerulonephritis.

Figure 3

Biopsy Specimen of the Kidney.

Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed prominent granular staining for IgG (4+), IgM (4+), C3 (3+), C1q (3+), IgA (1+), kappa (3+), and lambda (3+) along the glomerular basement membranes and within the mesangium, as well as focal granular deposits of IgG and C3 along the tubular basement membrane (Fig. 3C and 3D). Additional immunofluorescence studies showed strong positivity (4+) for SAA within the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium (Fig. 3E), whereas staining for beta₂-microglobulin, transthyretin, and apolipoprotein A1 was faint.

Electron microscopy revealed the presence of subendothelial and mesangial electron-dense deposits (with no substructure identified) adjacent to randomly arranged fibrils (measuring 8.2 to 10.6 nm in diameter) within the glomerular basement membranes and the mesangium (Fig. 3F). Glomerular endothelial cells appeared reactive and contained tubuloreticular inclusions, features that were suggestive of interferon-mediated activation.

The findings on Congo red staining were characteristic of amyloidosis with typical birefringent material. The strong positivity of SAA within the deposits as compared with the faint staining of other reactants identified the type of amyloid as SAA, which is consistent with the patient’s history of rheumatoid arthritis. The biopsy also showed an immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis with a “full house” pattern (defined as positivity for the three immunoglobulin classes IgG, IgM, and IgA and the two complement components C3 and C1q, in reference to the “full house” hand in a poker game). Immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis has been reported in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who were receiving anti–TNF-α therapy,¹⁴ which was not the case in this patient. The positive test for hepatitis C antibodies prompted consideration of hepatitis C–related membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. However, taken together, the negative nucleic acid test for hepatitis C virus, the full house pattern on immunofluorescence, the tubular basement membrane deposits, and the positive test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies favor a diagnosis of lupus nephritis of at least class III (defined as focal proliferative glomerulonephritis), according to the criteria of the International Society of Nephrology and the Renal Pathology Society, superimposed on AA amyloidosis.

Pathological Diagnosis

Proliferative lupus nephritis of International Society of Nephrology and Renal Pathology Society class III, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.

Discussion of Management

Dr. Pui W. Cheung: On the basis of the finding of echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography and the findings of extensive interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy on kidney biopsy, we know that this patient has advanced chronic kidney disease that is unlikely to be reversible. The patient is also noted to have a markedly lower glomerular filtration rate (GFR) than that predicted by the blood creatinine level owing to the presence of cachexia, and this is substantiated by the cystatin C–based GFR and a 24-hour creatinine clearance of 22 ml per minute per 1.73 m² of body-surface area. The typical induction therapy for stage III or IV lupus nephritis consists of high-dose glucocorticoids and either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Other reasonable alternatives for initial therapy include mycophenolate mofetil in combination with either a calcineurin inhibitor or belimumab, or cyclophosphamide in combination with belimumab.¹⁵ Hydroxychloroquine is also recommended as part of the therapy, since it has shown benefits in improving the response to treatment and reducing disease flare.¹⁶ Mycophenolate mofetil and cyclophosphamide have similar efficacy with respect to clinical response, which includes a reduction in proteinuria and either an improvement in renal function or stabilization of renal function; the risks of infections and adverse events associated with these medications are also similar.^17,18

Given the severity of the lupus nephritis with overlying AA amyloidosis from active rheumatoid arthritis, the treatment options proposed were high-dose glucocorticoids and rituximab with either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide.¹⁹ After discussions with multidisciplinary consultants from rheumatology, infectious diseases, and nephrology, lingering concerns were raised about infection and patient frailty; ultimately, the decision was made to initiate high-dose glucocorticoid therapy in combination with mycophenolate mofetil, rituximab, and hydroxychloroquine.

The patient’s mycophenolate mofetil dose regimen was inconsistent owing to gastrointestinal side effects, and the treatment was eventually withheld because of pancytopenia and fever. Unfortunately, her kidney function worsened, and renal replacement therapy was initiated within 3 weeks after the start of the induction therapy. The cause of her renal failure was thought to be disease progression, compounded by hemodynamically mediated tubular injury in the context of infection. While the administration of mycophenolate mofetil was stopped, treatment with rituximab was continued, with slow tapering of the glucocorticoid dose at the direction of the rheumatologist. She remained dependent on dialysis and was deemed to have end-stage kidney disease after 3 months of dialysis.

Dr. Lisa G. Criscione-Schreiber: The patient has SLE with nephritis, seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic AA amyloidosis. AA amyloidosis is rare owing to the availability of effective therapies for rheumatoid arthritis and is managed through aggressive treatment of inflammation due to rheumatoid arthritis. Reports addressing the management of rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis generally cite stability of end-organ damage caused by AA amyloid as evidence of effective management of the condition (through treatment of the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis). Methotrexate, the cornerstone of treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, is contraindicated in this case owing to the presence of kidney disease. The alkylating agent cyclophosphamide has been reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis from rheumatoid arthritis²⁰ and has known efficacy in patients with lupus nephritis, both of which make it a viable treatment option. Rituximab has also been reported to be effective for managing rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis,²¹ is approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and is used for manifestations of SLE, including thrombocytopenia and nephritis. Although anti–TNF-α agents, abatacept, and Janus kinase inhibitors are reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis,²² recent publications have coalesced on the ability of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to block interleukin-6–induced hepatic production of SAA.^23-25

The overlap of seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and SLE (sometimes termed “rhupus”) usually resembles rheumatoid arthritis more than SLE; manifestations include thrombocytosis, leukocytosis, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, an elevated blood level of C-reactive protein, and the presence of marginal erosions on radiographs.²⁶ In contrast, SLE without seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis characteristically manifests with thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate but usually not an elevated C-reactive protein level; in addition, nonerosive inflammatory arthritis with reversible deformities is commonly observed. This patient had a mixed laboratory profile, on the basis of the results of antinuclear antibody and anti–double-stranded DNA antibody tests. The challenge of treating an overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and SLE is choosing disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs that are effective and safe in both conditions. This patient’s most severe disease manifestation is lupus nephritis; therefore, the treatment regimen must target nephritis along with the AA amyloidosis and inflammatory arthritis.

As noted earlier, current induction therapy for lupus nephritis includes either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Mycophenolate mofetil may provide inadequate treatment of the rheumatoid arthritis and amyloidosis, whereas cyclophosphamide would treat the lupus nephritis, has possible efficacy for treatment of the AA amyloidosis, and would treat the rheumatoid arthritis. Rituximab could be added to cyclophosphamide or mycophenolate mofetil to treat the rheumatoid arthritis and resultant AA amyloidosis and could also possibly help treat the lupus nephritis. The addition of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide is an intriguing option that may effectively treat the rheumatoid arthritis and subsequent AA amyloidosis. The addition of belimumab to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide has been reported to improve renal response in patients with lupus nephritis,²⁷ as has the addition of voclosporin to mycophenolate mofetil.²⁸ However, belimumab is ineffective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and voclosporin has not been studied in patients with rheumatoid arthritis or in those with a GFR of 45 milliliters per minute or less. The high-dose glucocorticoids that are used in induction therapy for lupus nephritis will effectively manage this patient’s inflammatory arthritis and probably also the subsequent AA amyloidosis. Finally, it is important that every patient with lupus nephritis receive hydroxychloroquine, which improves the treatment response to induction therapy.²⁹

Follow-up

Dr. Parsons: The patient’s hospital course was further complicated by suspected immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, for which she received intravenous immune globulin. Her pancytopenia and arthritis ultimately abated. Unfortunately, she did not have renal recovery and continues to receive hemodialysis. After a prolonged hospital course, she was discharged home.

Final Diagnosis

Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus complicated by proliferative lupus nephritis, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.