温州市人民医院-卵巢子宫内膜异位症-专家在线问诊-京东健康互联网医院

简介:

温州市人民医院于1913年9月建成开诊，是浙江省最早的西医医院之一。建院一百多年，已成长为一家集医疗、教学、科研、康复、预防保健于一体，历史文化底蕴深厚、医疗科研实力雄厚的三级甲等综合性医院。既有突出的综合实力、又有鲜明的专科特色，在浙南闽北地区享有较高的知名度与美誉度。立足新时代焕发新生机，医院全力打造集综合学科、特色专科、互联网医疗三位一体的现代数字化城市医疗综合体。持续强化妇幼专科优势，取得人类辅助生殖技术资质，增挂温州市妇女儿童医院；高水平融入长三角一体化发展，成为上海大学附属第三医院；此外，医院还承担温州医科大学、杭州师范大学医学院等20多家医学院校的见实习教学任务。医院现有职工2669人，中高级专业技术人员1258人，高级职称380人，博士16人，各级人才53人次，上海大学硕导14人，温州医科大学硕、博导12人。现有核定床位1500张，设37个专业科室，14个医技科室。拥有妇科、产科、儿科等3个浙南区域专病中心，妇产科、消化内科等2个省市共建重点学科，围产医学、消化病、舒适医疗和生殖医学等4个市级重点学科群以及15个市级重点学科，为首批国家级住院医师规范化培训基地。建设有上海大学老年医学研究中心（温州），温州市妇产科重点实验室，温州智能医学神经变性疾病重点实验室，有13个专业具备国家药物及器械临床试验机构资格。成为中国妇幼保健协会专科助产士临床培训基地、中国心血管健康联盟心血管病专科护理及技术培训基地等5个国家级、省市级专科护士培训基地。医院每年平均有百余项国家及省市级课题立项，年发表论文250余篇（其中SCI30余篇），每年获批专利100余项，总专利数量已超过1000项。信河院区依托百年老院综合实力，突出妇幼保健专科和老年病专科特色，覆盖各类综合医学学科，围绕“一老一小”全力打造提供全生命周期医疗服务的特色专科院区。妇产专科一直承担着温州市乃至浙南、闽北地区妇产科危重疑难病人的救治、转诊、会诊工作，已鼎力集成以下妇产科领域的特色诊疗中心：肿瘤微创治疗、盆底障碍性疾病诊治、计划生育质控中心及产科质控与培训中心、出生缺陷综合防控中心。发展了一站式治疗不孕不育——试管婴儿技术、生殖外科手术与生殖内分泌等一批生殖核心技术。儿科是浙南区域专病中心，新生儿救治技术水平精湛，是温州市危重新生儿救治中心；儿童保健中心推陈出新，为浙江省儿童早期综合发展示范基地、浙江省先进示范育儿基地、温州市重点学科、温州市儿童生长发育中心、温州市高危儿干预中心，为0-18岁儿童提供全方位的系统临床与保健服务。老年医学中心依托上海大学老年医学研究中心，着力打造温州市“医-康-护-养”一体化老年医养示范中心。专注于为老年群体提供综合医疗健康服务，可为多种疾病的患者提供一站式诊疗服务，开展专科病房及老年病诊治联合门诊。诊疗范围不仅包括老年心血管、神经内科、呼吸、内分泌等多种老年急慢性疾病以及骨科、外科、泌尿系疾病的诊治、康复、管理及研究，同时还关注老年人认知心理、营养状况、运动功能及日常活动能力等综合问题。娄桥院区2017年11月，温州市人民医院娄桥院区扩迁完成，百年老院在温州城区西南片的新址上焕发出新的活力。按花园医院标准建设的娄桥院区占地6.4万㎡，建筑面积12万㎡，具有精强的综合实力和急救能力。娄桥院区以精准医学、微创技术、个性化医疗和智能医疗为技术发展方向，实行多学科或跨学科联合会诊机制，聚焦心脑血管疾病、肺部疾病、泌尿系结石诊疗、肿瘤与创伤诊疗、早癌筛查和干预、舒适医疗及慢病综合诊疗方面的突破和创新，已形成以消化内科、心血管内科、泌尿外科、胃肠外科、肝胆外科、急诊医学科、骨科、胸外科、神经内科、呼吸与危重症医学科等为优势学科的综合医学诊疗体系。医院先后通过中国胸痛中心认证、中国房颤中心认证，并成为中国心衰中心建设单位、国家早期肝癌筛查中心温州分中心、全国结直肠癌筛查基地、浙南肝胆胰诊治中心及中国医药教育协会临床合理用药示范基地。院内科研中心设上海大学老年医学研究中心（温州）、温州市智能医学神经变性疾病重点实验室、妇产科学重点实验室、消化病学实验室、药学实验室、眩晕病实验室等，并与中国科学院苏州生物医学工程研究所联合建立智能化诊疗研发中心，获批浙江省卫生健康实用新技术和适宜技术推广中心。作为首批国家住院医师规范化培训基地，设有面积达1800㎡的医学技能中心，是温州首家公立医院AHA血管急救课程培训中心。互联网医院依托人工智能、5G和AR技术，以患者为中心，向患者和基层医疗机构提供智能图文咨询、慢病复诊、智能报告解读、居家护理、处方配送、病房探视、急救系统、远程会诊和远程查房等服务，在提升基层医疗机构能力建设的同时，提供便捷、优质的医疗照护服务。通过互联网医院平台，可实现预约挂号、医技预约、候诊报到、院内导航、门诊结算、住院结算、门诊预缴、住院缴费、报告单查询、病历复印等互联网在线业务。体检中心隶属于我院，系温州地区成立最早的非营利性专业健康体检机构，为温州市首家通过“全国健康管理示范基地”评审的市级专业体检机构，是温州市职业健康检查与职业病诊断中心。承担市级保健对象、知名企业家、机关公务员、普通高校招生体检等健康体检任务，同时也为社会各企事业单位及各界人士提供优质的健康体检、职业健康检查和健康管理服务。中心体检项目齐全，推行“1+X”个性化体检套餐定制模式，并开设VIP住院式体检服务，实施检前、检中、检后全过程跟踪管理，提供优质、人文的“健康体检、健康评估、健康干预”一体化健康管理服务。子宫内膜异位症（endometriosis）是指有活性的内膜细胞种植在子宫内膜以外的位置而形成的一种女性常见妇科疾病。内膜细胞本该生长在子宫腔内,但由于子宫腔通过输卵管与盆腔相通,因此使得内膜细胞可经由输卵管进入盆腔异位生长。，子宫内膜种植,免疫防御功能缺陷,遗传与体质的因素,内分泌功能失调，卵巢，子宫内膜异位症的治疗方案,因病情的轻重,患者的年龄和生育情况而有所不同。如病情较重,或表现为重的痛经,或盆腔检查发现有肯定的内膜异位结节,就必须采取药物或手术治疗，卵巢恶性肿瘤、盆腔炎性肿块和子宫腺肌病，尽量少吃含有雌激素的食物,如大豆、洋葱、黑米、小麦等，B型超声检查,腹腔镜检查,实验室检查，。

郑永丰住院医师

三级甲等温州市人民医院

好评率：接诊量：平均响应：

妇产科常见病，多发病的诊治，如妇科肿瘤，卵巢囊肿，子宫内膜异位症，宫颈疾病，不孕不育等，正常分娩及各种难产的接生技术，妇产科各项手术

接诊医生：

2024-10-30 23:21:22

科普文章

巧克力囊肿会更加偏爱这3类人，你是不是这三类人呢？

子宫内膜异位症，应该怎么预防，你知道吗？

子宫内膜异位性不孕

子宫内膜异位是指子宫内膜生长在子宫腔以外的任何部位，如在卵巢、子宫骶骨韧带、子宫下段后壁浆膜层、子宫直肠陷窝以及乙状结肠的盆腔腹膜等处，亦可在子宫肌层发生。其临床主要表现为渐进性的痛经。

临床研究表明，约有 50%左右内膜异症患者伴有不孕，在不明原因不孕患者中，约 30-40%患内异症。内异症患有不孕，常因病变造成盆腔肿块、粘连、输卵管堵塞卵泡发育不好或排卵障碍等因素引起;而一旦怀孕则异位内膜受到抑制而萎缩，对内异症起到很好的治疗，习惯性流产病例中有部分为子宫内膜异位症所致。

由于该病的主要症状表现为痛经，中医认为 "不通则痛"，故针对子宫内膜异位症引起的痛经，可以给予活血化瘀，理气止痛的中药口服，如少腹逐瘀汤、膈下逐淤汤等，常可配合外治法，如中药外敷下腹部或用活血化瘀行气通腑的中药煎汤保留灌肠等，改善盆腔瘀滞，使气行则血行，通则不痛，直达病所，疗效更有针对性，从整体出发消除病因，既治标又治本，从而达到调经种子的治疗目的。

有效减少不良反应，AD新药改良给药方案来了

当地时间10月29日礼来宣布了Ⅲb期临床试验（TRAILBLAZER-ALZ 6）的积极结果，对于早期症状性阿尔茨海默病成人患者，用改良滴定方案接受donanemab治疗的患者在24周主要终点时，伴水肿/积液的淀粉样蛋白相关影像学异常（ARIA-E）有所减少。

donanemab这个新药在今年7月获批于美国，又在之后获日本厚生劳动省、英国药品和医疗产品监管局批准，用于轻度阿尔茨海默病、轻度认知功能障碍的治疗。donanemab在国内2023年取得突破性治疗药物认定，并纳入优先审评审批程序，目前还在审评审批过程中。

CDE官网截图

但在FDA说明书中有黑框警告，大意是应用该药时应注意淀粉样蛋白相关影像学异常（ARIA），表现为ARIA-E和ARIA伴含铁血黄素沉积（ARIA-H），通常发生在治疗早期，且无症状，很少发生严重和危及生命的事件。本次试验的积极结果和这个黑框警告相关。一起来看详情。

FDA说明书截图

给药方式有哪些改变？会不会影响效果？

TRAILBLAZER-ALZ 6是一项多中心随机双盲Ⅲb期研究，主要研究donanemab的不同给药方案对早期症状性AD患者ARIA-E和淀粉样蛋白清除率的影响，这里的早期AD指的是轻度认知障碍（MCI）和轻度痴呆疾病阶段。

给药方式和既往不同，既往标准给药方案是在前三次输注时接受2瓶（700mg）donanemab，然后再接受4瓶（1400mg）；改良滴定方式是患者第一次输注1瓶（350mg），第二次输注2瓶（700mg），第三次输注3瓶（1050mg），此后每次输注4瓶（1400mg）。

研究的主要终点是第24周时患者出现ARIA-E占总参与者的比例，结果显示接受改良滴定方式的患者ARIA-E发生率为14%，而标准给药方案为24%，相对风险降低41%。载脂蛋白E（APOE）是已知的阿尔茨海默病遗传风险因素的携带者，在这些患者中，19%患者在改良滴定时患有ARIA-E，而标准给药方案中为57%，相对风险降低67%。

看到这里你或许也有疑问，虽然ARIA-E的发生风险降低了，但改良滴定方案会不会影响疗效？答案是不会。

与接受标准给药方案的患者相比，改良滴定患者淀粉样斑块和p-tau217减少。改良滴定的患者的淀粉样斑块水平较基线平均降低 67%，而标准给药组患者为69%。

参考来源

1.Modified Titration of Donanemab Demonstrated Reduction of ARIA-E in Early Symptomatic Alzheimer's Disease Patients in Phase Ⅲb study.

2.CED官网.

3.A Study of Different Donanemab (LY3002813) Dosing Regimens in Adults With Early Alzheimer's Disease (TRAILBLAZER-ALZ 6).

重磅！白血病一线新药获FDA加速批准

当地时间10月29日，阿西米尼（asciminib）获美国食品药品管理局（FDA）加速批准^[1] ，用于慢性期新诊断的费城染色体阳性慢性粒细胞白血病（Ph+CML）成年患者。CML是一种骨髓和血细胞癌症，通常由费城染色体的异常染色体引起。在一线治疗中，约1/3的患者会出现下列问题：由于不良反应或者治疗无效而停止酪氨酸激酶抑制剂（TKI）治疗。

为了解决这一问题，需要开发新的药物，asciminib就是解决这一困境的新药。早在2022年8月，加拿大药物和卫生技术局（CADTH）建议^[2] ：“若满足条件，可通过公共药物计划报销asciminib用于治疗费城染色体阳性慢性粒细胞白血病。”

asciminib为何得到FDA的青睐？

本次获批基于一项III期多中心随机研究，研究目的是比较每日80mg的asciminib与TKI治疗的疗效。TKI治疗是接受伊马替尼、尼洛替尼、达沙替尼或博舒替尼任意一种治疗。

共有405名患者被随机分配（1:1）进两组治疗。主要疗效结局指标是48周时的主要分子反应（MMR）率。这个指标是慢性髓性白血病的关键指标，这个比例越高，说明该治疗在基因水平上对疾病的控制效果越好，能够更有效地抑制疾病相关基因的表达，进而有望更好地控制疾病的进展、改善患者的症状和预后。

研究结果显示，48周时MMR率方面，asciminib组中为68%（95% CI: 61, 74)，TKI组为49%（95% CI: 42, 56），二者相差19%。细看具体的TKI，入组伊马替尼和其他TKI药物入组比例为1:1；asciminib组的MMR率为69%（95% CI: 59, 78），而伊马替尼组为40%（95% CI: 31, 50），相差近30%（95% CI: 17, 42）。

这个新药安全吗？每周需要打几次药？

根据FDA数据显示，在新诊断和既往接受过治疗的患者，应用新药最常见的不良反应（≥20%）是肌肉骨骼疼痛、皮疹、疲劳、上呼吸道感染、头痛、腹痛和腹泻。若只看新诊断的患者，最常见的实验室异常（≥40%）是淋巴细胞计数降低、白细胞计数降低、血小板计数降低、中性粒细胞计数降低等。

根据FDA已批准的asciminib说明书，用药期间还需要注意一下事项：

1.骨髓抑制：用药期间可能因出现骨髓抑制，发生血小板减少症、中性粒细胞减少症和贫血。用药应在治疗的前3个月，需要每两周进行一次全血细胞计数，此后每月进行一次检测，从而判断患者有无骨髓抑制症状。根据严重程度，咨询医生是否需要停药。

2.胰腺毒性：患者可能出现血清脂肪酶和淀粉酶无症状升高，每月需评估血清脂肪酶和淀粉酶水平，如果您有胰腺炎，则注意主动告知医生，需要进行频率更高的检测。

3.高血压风险：可能出现3级或4级高血压风险，应注意检测血压。

4.超敏反应：可能出现3级或4级超敏反应，包括皮疹、水肿和支气管痉挛。如果出现这些症状，需及时反馈医生，医生会根据超敏反应的体征和症状，开始适当的治疗。

5.心血管毒性：如果您有心血管病史，需要告知医生；对于3级或更高级别的心血管毒性，医生会考虑暂停用药、减少剂量或永久停药。

6.胚胎/胎儿毒性：若您在怀孕期间用药或在服用药物期间怀孕，可能对孩子有潜在风险。这个新药是口服药，需要根据不同的给药剂量（80mg或40mg）每天/或每两天用药。

近些年来，还有哪些白血病药物获批FDA？

根据FDA肿瘤学/血液系统恶性肿瘤批准通知，白血病相关新药整理如下表。

另外可以看出21年时asciminib已获批白血病治疗，但限定既往接受过两种或更多TKIs治疗，本次获批属于扩大适应证。

参考来源：

1.FDA grants accelerated approval to asciminib for newly diagnosed chronic myeloid leukemia. 2.Asciminib(Scemblix):CADTHReimbursementRecommendation:Indication:ForthetreatmentofadultpatientswithPhiladelphiachromosome-positivechronicmyeloidleukemia(Ph+CML)inchronicphase(CP)previouslytreatedwith2ormoretyrosinekinaseinhibitors.Ottawa(ON):CanadianAgencyforDrugsandTechnologiesinHealth;2022Aug.PMID:38713779. 3.AStudyofOralAsciminibVersusOtherTKIsinAdultPatientsWithNewlyDiagnosedPh+CML-CP. 4.Product information：SCEMBLIX-asciminibtablet,filmcoated.UpdatedAugust7,2024. 5.Oncology(Cancer)/HematologicMalignanciesApprovalNotifications.

病例31-2023：一名79岁男性，身体不自主运动，一过性反应迟钝

以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。

Presentation of Case

Dr. Carrie Chui (Neurology): A 79-year-old man was admitted to this hospital because of involuntary movements on the left side and transient unresponsiveness.

The patient had been in his usual state of health until 9 months before admission, when involuntary movements of the left shoulder and left side of the face developed. The movements were described by the patient as twitching, were not associated with a change in the level of consciousness, and resolved after 1 to 2 minutes. During the next 6 months, the patient had similar episodes approximately once per month, but the episodes increased in duration, lasting 5 to 6 minutes.

Three months before admission, the episodes of involuntary movements increased in frequency, and the patient was evaluated by his primary care physician. The physical examination was normal. Results of kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 129 mmol per liter (reference range, 135 to 145). There was a history of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, and the sodium level was similar to levels obtained during the past 4 years. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head (Figure 1A), performed before and after the administration of intravenous contrast material, revealed a focus of enhancement in the right middle frontal gyrus that was thought to be a small vascular anomaly. Electroencephalography (EEG), performed with the patient in awake and drowsy states, revealed rare, brief, focal slowing in the left temporal lobe during drowsiness; no epileptiform abnormalities were present.

Figure 1

MRI of the Head and CT Angiogram of the Head and Neck.

Two months before admission, the patient was evaluated in the epilepsy clinic affiliated with this hospital. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements had increased in both frequency and duration, occurring once or twice per day and lasting approximately 10 minutes. Episodes began with tingling and numbness in the left leg that prompted the patient to voluntarily stomp the left foot to relieve the uncomfortable sensation. Then, the patient had involuntary movements that he described as an uncontrollable invisible force moving the left leg and arm, with hyperextension of the arm backward and pronation of the wrist. There was associated numbness in the distal portions of the left third, fourth, and fifth fingers and involuntary movement of the left cheek. No prodromal symptoms occurred. The patient had awareness during the episodes, and after the episodes, he felt fatigued but had a normal level of consciousness, without confusion. The examination in the epilepsy clinic was normal. A diagnosis of seizure disorder was considered, and treatment with levetiracetam was started.

Three weeks before admission, the patient was again evaluated in the epilepsy clinic. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements still occurred on a daily basis but had decreased in duration and involved only the left leg, without abnormal movements of the arm or face. Dizziness, headache, and weakness had developed and were attributed to the use of levetiracetam. The patient’s family had recorded a video of one of the episodes of involuntary movements. After reviewing the video, the patient’s neurologist thought that the episodes were less likely to be caused by seizures and more consistent with choreoathetoid movements. Cross-tapering of medications — with the simultaneous administration of levetiracetam in decreasing doses and clobazam in increasing doses — was initiated, and the patient was referred to the movement disorders clinic affiliated with this hospital.

On the morning of admission, an episode of involuntary movements of the left leg and left shoulder occurred and persisted for 1 hour. Several hours after the symptoms abated, the patient’s wife found the patient to be unresponsive; he was sitting in a chair. Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was responsive. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 180 mg per deciliter (10.0 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 110/80 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.

In the emergency department, the patient reported dysuria and increased urinary frequency. The patient’s daughter noted that he had been more anxious during the past 3 years and occasionally had trouble with memory. Other medical history included Barrett’s esophagus, benign prostatic hypertrophy, chronic hepatitis B virus infection, eczema, gastroesophageal reflux disease, hypertension, nonischemic cardiomyopathy, and osteoporosis. There was no history of head trauma or extended loss of consciousness. Medications included aspirin, atorvastatin, doxazosin, finasteride, omeprazole, metoprolol, sacubitril, and valsartan. There were no known drug allergies. The patient was a lifelong nonsmoker and drank alcohol rarely; he did not use illicit drugs. His mother had had gastric cancer, and his sister had had esophageal cancer; there was no family history of seizures.

On examination, the temporal temperature was 36.8°C, the blood pressure 152/97 mm Hg, the pulse 65 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 16 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 96% while the patient was breathing ambient air. The body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) was 21.7. The blood pressure decreased to 130/63 mm Hg with standing. The patient was alert and interactive. The lower jaw was held to the left, but the nasolabial folds and smile were symmetric with activation. There were nonrhythmic, nonstereotyped, writhing movements of the left arm. Tone was normal, and strength was assessed as 5 out of 5 in the arms and legs. Results of liver-function and kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 125 mmol per liter. The lactate level was 2.1 mmol per liter (19 mg per deciliter; reference range, 0.5 to 2.0 mmol per liter [5 to 18 mg per deciliter]). The urinalysis was normal. Intravenous fluids were administered. Imaging studies were obtained.

Dr. Rajiv Gupta: Computed tomographic (CT) angiography of the head and neck (Figure 1B) revealed extensively calcified plaque with severe stenosis of the distal right common carotid artery (CCA), extending into the proximal right internal carotid artery (ICA), as well as stenosis of the right and left paraclinoid ICAs and the left vertebral artery at its origin. There was no vascular abnormality on the CT angiogram that corresponded to the abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus seen on the previous MRI.

Dr. Chui: The patient was admitted to the hospital. On the second hospital day, the sodium level had increased to 130 mmol per liter, and the lactate level was normal. Additional imaging studies were obtained.

Dr. Gupta: MRI of the head showed no evidence of acute infarction. The focus of enhancement in the right frontal lobe that had been noted previously was not seen on the current MRI.

Dr. Chui: Blood levels of thyrotropin, cobalamin, and glycated hemoglobin and results of coagulation tests were normal. Screening tests for Lyme disease, tuberculosis, and syphilis were negative, as were tests for antibodies to cardiolipin and β₂-glycoprotein. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive, at a titer of 1:160 in a homogeneous pattern. During a physical therapy session, the patient had abnormal movements of the left leg, left arm, and left side of the face. The abnormal movements diminished when the patient used distraction techniques, such as thigh tapping, finger snapping, and walking while holding a glass of water.

The transient unresponsiveness that led to the patient’s admission was attributed to a combination of sedation from clobazam and hypovolemia. Treatment with clobazam was stopped, and hydration was encouraged. A diagnosis of functional neurologic disorder was considered; outpatient physical therapy with continued use of distraction techniques was recommended. The patient was discharged home on the third hospital day.

Episodes of involuntary movements continued to occur on a daily basis at home. Two weeks after discharge, when the patient was doing exercises while sitting in a chair and having a conversation with his wife, he suddenly stopped talking. She found him slumped in the chair with his eyes closed, no longer exercising. When she asked him questions, he repeatedly said “yes.” Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was alert, diaphoretic, and nonverbal. He had a facial droop on the left side and a right gaze preference. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 130 mg per deciliter (7.2 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 120/60 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.

In the emergency department, the temporal temperature was 36.6°C, the blood pressure 143/63 mm Hg, the pulse 66 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 18 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 98% while the patient was breathing ambient air. He was alert and interactive. There was a facial droop on the left side. There was no effort against gravity in the left arm. The patient was able to lift the left leg off the bed for 1 to 2 seconds. He had a right gaze deviation that could not be overcome and mild dysarthria. The remainder of the examination was normal. A diagnosis of stroke was considered, and emergency CT angiography was performed.

Dr. Gupta: CT angiography showed no evidence of acute territorial infarction and no changes in cerebrovascular disease.

Dr. Chui: On repeat physical examination performed after CT angiography, the gaze deviation and dysarthria had resolved, and strength was normal. Mild facial paralysis was present.

A diagnosis was made.

Differential Diagnosis

Dr. Albert Y. Hung: This 79-year-old man initially presented with involuntary movements of the left shoulder and face without associated loss of consciousness. Diagnosis of an unusual movement disorder, especially one that is present episodically, can be challenging. Videos brought in by the patient can be very useful.¹ Most movement disorders result from abnormal functioning of extrapyramidal circuits involving the basal ganglia, rather than a specific neuroanatomical lesion, and the first step toward diagnosis is to identify the type of abnormal movements.²

Four salient aspects of this patient’s involuntary movements can help in characterizing the movement disorder before generating a differential diagnosis. First, the movements were paroxysmal, lasting for short periods of time with resolution between episodes. Second, the movements were nonstereotyped, appearing randomly and variably. Third, the movements were restricted to the left side of his body throughout the course, localizing the disease process to the right cerebral hemisphere. Finally, the symptoms were progressive, increasing in both duration and frequency.

Movement Disorders

This patient had abnormal involuntary movements, symptoms indicative of a hyperkinetic movement disorder. Tremor, the most common hyperkinetic disorder, is unlikely because the patient did not have rhythmic movements. Dystonia is also unlikely, because he did not have sustained muscle contractions that were causing twisting or abnormal postures of the legs, arms, head, neck, or face. Although the patient initially described the movements as twitching, his later descriptions are not suggestive of myoclonus or tics, which manifest as sudden, rapid, recurrent movements.

This patient’s neurologist described the involuntary movements as “choreoathetoid” after reviewing a video of an episode. Chorea, athetosis, and ballism make up a spectrum of involuntary movements that often occur in combination. Chorea refers to involuntary movements that are “dancelike” — irregular, random, unintended, and flowing from one body part to another. When these movements are slow and writhing (with a lower amplitude) and involve the distal limbs, the term athetosis is used. The presence of both chorea and athetosis in the same patient is referred to as choreoathetosis. When the movements are fast and flinging (with a higher amplitude) and involve the proximal limbs, the term ballism is used. Although the description of this patient’s movements was not clearly suggestive of ballism, hemichorea and hemiballismus often occur together.

The term dyskinesia can refer to any abnormal movements and is often used to describe hyperkinetic disorders that are induced by specific drugs, such as tardive dyskinesia induced by dopamine antagonists or dyskinesia induced by levodopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Often, dyskinesia manifests as chorea or choreoathetoid movements, but chorea and dyskinesia are not synonymous. This patient appears to have involuntary dyskinesia with choreoathetosis as the primary phenomenology. Before constructing a differential diagnosis for dyskinesia in this patient, I will consider two conditions that mimic dyskinesia: seizures and functional movement disorder.

Seizures

Various movement disorders may be mistaken for seizures, although these movement disorders are not associated with EEG abnormalities during the episode. Patients with some forms of epilepsy may present with abnormal movements without other features that are typically associated with seizures, such as aura, change in responsiveness, incontinence, or a postictal state.^3,4 Seizures were initially suspected in this patient, and he was referred to the epilepsy clinic. Recurrent focal seizures were probably suspected because of the transient nature of the episodes. Initial MRI had shown a small abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus, but this finding was not seen on follow-up imaging, which makes it unlikely to be related to the overall presentation. Baseline EEG had shown only brief left temporal slowing, without epileptiform abnormalities. The EEG was an interictal study, so the findings do not rule out seizures. However, the slowing was ipsilateral to the abnormal movements, so it is unlikely to be related to the episodes. In addition, the patient’s involuntary movements were nonstereotyped and nonrhythmic, which makes his presentation unlikely to be due to a seizure disorder.

Functional Movement Disorder

Because this patient’s movements diminished with the use of distraction techniques, a diagnosis of functional movement disorder was considered. Most cases of functional movement disorder begin abruptly after a trigger, such as a mild physical injury or illness; a psychological stressor can be present but is not required for diagnosis. Symptoms are typically most severe around the time of onset and may wax and wane over time. Although distractibility is a finding associated with functional disorders, abnormal movements that occur with nonfunctional syndromes can sometimes be suppressed by action or incorporated into voluntary movements in a manner that may appear distractible. Several clinical features in this patient make a diagnosis of functional disorder unlikely. Functional movement disorder is more common in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 40 years.⁵ In addition, tremor is the most common clinical phenotype seen in patients with functional movement disorder; chorea or choreoathetosis, which was seen in this patient, is very unusual in patients with functional movement disorder. Overall, functional movement disorder is unlikely to explain this patient’s presentation.

Dyskinesia

Primary paroxysmal dyskinesia refers to a group of heterogeneous syndromes characterized by recurrent involuntary movements that occur episodically and abruptly, without loss of consciousness.⁶ These disorders usually begin in childhood or young adulthood. Both the age of this patient and the described phenomenology make a diagnosis of primary paroxysmal dyskinesia unlikely.

The differential diagnosis in this case is therefore focused on causes of secondary dyskinesia, of which there are many.⁷ MRI ruled out the presence of a mass lesion suggestive of cancer. The patient had no history of acute illness suggestive of a viral or other infectious encephalitis, and there was no history of trauma or exposure to drugs or other toxins. Although his daughter mentioned trouble with memory, there was no compelling history suggestive of a neurodegenerative disease.

A common metabolic cause of secondary dyskinesia is diabetic striatopathy, a syndrome involving the acute-to-subacute onset of chorea and ballism in the context of hyperglycemia.⁸ This syndrome can occur as the initial manifestation of type 2 diabetes mellitus or as a complication of poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetic striatopathy is more likely to develop in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 70 years. Most patients present with hemichorea and hemiballismus, rather than bilateral symptoms. CT shows hyperdensity, and T1-weighted MRI shows hyperintensity, in the contralateral basal ganglia. However, this patient had no history of diabetes and had a normal blood glycated hemoglobin level, features that rule out a diagnosis of diabetic striatopathy.

Choreiform movements can also be a manifestation of autoimmune conditions.⁹ This patient’s initial presentation with unilateral shoulder and face movements would have suggested the possibility of faciobrachial dystonic seizures associated with anti–leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 (anti-LGI1) encephalitis.¹⁰ This condition is often associated with hyponatremia, which was present in this patient. However, as the case evolved, leg involvement and sensory changes developed that would be atypical for anti-LGI1 encephalitis.

One key clue in this case is that the patient did not have an isolated movement disorder. In addition to motor symptoms, he had a variety of sensory symptoms involving both the left arm and the left leg. His first hospital admission was precipitated by an episode of unresponsiveness. The clinical event that led to his second presentation to the emergency department was distinctly different: an acute onset of speech difficulty accompanied by left hemiparesis and right gaze deviation that was worrisome for an acute right middle cerebral artery (MCA) syndrome. The symptoms resolved without intervention, which indicates that he may have had an acute transient ischemic attack (TIA). The most relevant imaging finding was severe cerebrovascular disease, including severe stenosis of the distal right CCA and proximal right ICA. Could this patient’s movement disorder be explained by a vascular lesion?

Limb-Shaking TIAs

Limb-shaking TIAs were first described by C. Miller Fisher in 1962.¹¹ In most case reports, these episodes are associated with high-grade stenosis of the ICA, which was seen in this patient.^12,13 The mechanism is thought to be cerebral hypoperfusion, and changes in posture or head position that decrease cerebral blood flow can precipitate these episodes. In this patient, the first episode of unresponsiveness that led to hospital admission occurred when he was sitting. He then had an acute episode involving right gaze preference that was provoked by exercise and was very suggestive of a TIA in the right MCA territory. These findings are highly suggestive of a diagnosis of limb-shaking TIAs, and I would refer this patient for emergency carotid endarterectomy.

Clinical Impression and Initial Management

Dr. Scott B. Silverman: When I evaluated this patient, his transient right gaze preference and left hemiparesis were consistent with a right MCA syndrome due to a TIA from symptomatic severe stenosis of the right ICA. The mechanism of this event was either artery-to-artery embolism or hypoperfusion. His previous, recurrent episodes of transient choreoathetosis on the left side that had occurred mainly while he was sitting, standing, or exercising were consistent with limb-shaking TIAs from hypoperfusion or low flow.

The pathogenesis of a low-flow state related to severe carotid stenosis resulting in limb-shaking TIAs is described in a small case series.¹⁴ In six out of eight patients, the transient, stereotyped, involuntary movements were eliminated with carotid artery revascularization. Positional cerebral ischemia in patients without orthostatic hypotension has been described.¹⁵

Treatment with atorvastatin was continued, the dose of aspirin was increased to 325 mg per day, and an intravenous heparin infusion was started. The strategy of permissive hypertension was used, with high blood pressure allowed to a maximum systolic blood pressure of 180 mm Hg. The patient was admitted to the stroke service, and carotid artery duplex ultrasonography was performed.

Dr. Gupta: Doppler ultrasonography of the carotid arteries (Figure 2) revealed markedly elevated Doppler flow velocities within the proximal right ICA. There was a parvus et tardus waveform in the distal right ICA, a finding indicative of low flow related to the more proximal high-grade stenosis. The Doppler waveform contours had poststenotic turbulence.

Figure 2

Doppler Ultrasound Image.

Dr. Silverman: The vascular surgery service was consulted, and the patient underwent right carotid endarterectomy.

Clinical Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.

Dr. Albert Y. Hung’s Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks due to severe carotid stenosis, with secondary paroxysmal dyskinesia.

Pathological Discussion

Dr. Caroline F. Hilburn: The endarterectomy specimen included the carotid bifurcation and was notable for firm arterial walls, a finding consistent with calcification. On gross examination (Figure 3A), a large plaque was centered at the carotid bifurcation and protruded into the lumen, resulting in a maximal luminal stenosis of 80%. The plaque had an irregular and focally friable surface. On microscopic examination (Figure 3B), the plaque was characterized by extensive calcification. Some regions of the plaque had a smooth, healed fibrous cap, whereas other regions had an irregular surface suggestive of ulceration, which indicated potential sites of plaque rupture. Multiple smaller calcified plaques were present, affecting both branches of the artery.

Figure 3

Endarterectomy Specimen.

Pathological Diagnosis

Complex atherosclerotic plaque with portions of attached media.

Additional Management

Dr. Silverman: After the procedure, the patient had an uneventful recovery and was discharged home on the fifth hospital day. He was seen 1 month after discharge in the stroke prevention clinic. There had been no further episodes of involuntary movements or choreoathetosis and no stroke or TIA. The patient continues to take aspirin, atorvastatin, and antihypertensive medications.

Final Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.

病例28-2024：一名75岁女性，患有水肿、关节炎和蛋白尿

以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。

Presentation of Case

Dr. Christine M. Parsons (Medicine): A 75-year-old woman was evaluated at this hospital because of arthritis, abdominal pain, edema, malaise, and fever.

Three weeks before the current admission, the patient noticed waxing and waning “throbbing” pain in the right upper abdomen, which she rated at 9 (on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 indicating the most severe pain) at its maximal intensity. The pain was associated with nausea and fever with a temperature of up to 39.0°C. Pain worsened after food consumption and was relieved with acetaminophen. During the 3 weeks before the current admission, edema developed in both legs; it had started at the ankles and gradually progressed upward to the hips. When the edema began to affect her ambulation, she presented to the emergency department of this hospital.

A review of systems that was obtained from the patient and her family was notable for intermittent fever, abdominal bloating, anorexia, and fatigue that had progressed during the previous 3 weeks. The patient reported new orthopnea and nonproductive cough. Approximately 4 weeks earlier, she had had diarrhea for several days. During the 6 weeks before the current admission, the patient had lost 9 kg unintentionally; she also had had pain in the wrists and hands, 3 days of burning and dryness of the eyes, and diffuse myalgias. She had not had night sweats, dry mouth, jaw claudication, vision changes, urinary symptoms, or oral, nasal, or genital ulcers.

The patient’s medical history was notable for multiple myeloma (for which treatment with thalidomide and melphalan had been initiated 2 years earlier and was stopped approximately 1 year before the current admission); hypothyroidism; chikungunya virus infection (diagnosed 7 years earlier); seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis affecting the hands, wrists, elbows, and shoulders (diagnosed 3 years earlier); vitiligo; and osteoarthritis of the right hip, for which she had undergone arthroplasty. Evidence of gastritis was reportedly seen on endoscopy that had been performed 6 months earlier. Medications included daily treatment with levothyroxine and acetaminophen and pipazethate hydrochloride as needed for cough. The patient consumed chamomile and horsetail herbal teas. She had no known allergies to medications, but she had been advised not to take nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after her diagnosis of multiple myeloma.

Approximately 5 months before the current admission, the patient had emigrated from Central America. She lived with her daughter and grandchildren in an urban area of New England. She had previously worked in health care. She had no history of alcohol, tobacco, or other substance use. There was no family history of cancer or autoimmune, renal, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, or cardiac disease.

On examination, the temporal temperature was 37.1°C, the heart rate 106 beats per minute, the blood pressure 152/67 mm Hg, and the oxygen saturation 100% while the patient was breathing ambient air. She had a frail appearance and bitemporal cachexia. The weight was 41 kg and the body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) 15.2. Her dentition was poor; most of the teeth were missing, caries were present in the remaining teeth, and the mucous membranes were dry. She had abdominal tenderness on the right side and mild abdominal distention, without organomegaly or guarding. Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy was palpable. Infrequent inspiratory wheezing was noted.

The patient had swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, ulnar deviation, and distal hyperextensibility of the thumbs (Fig. 1). Subcutaneous nodules were observed on the proximal interphalangeal joints of the second and third fingers of the right hand and on the proximal interphalangeal joint of the fourth finger of the left hand. Synovial thickening of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the second fingers was noted. There was mild swelling and tenderness of the wrists. She had pain with flexion of the shoulders and right hip, and there was subtle swelling of the shoulders and right knee. Pitting edema (3+) and vitiligo were noted on the legs. No sclerodactyly, digital pitting, telangiectasias, appreciable calcinosis, nodules, nail changes (including pitting), or tophi were present. The remainder of the examination was normal.

Figure 1

Photograph of the Hands.

The blood levels of glucose, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, globulin, lactate, lipase, magnesium, and phosphorus were normal, as were the prothrombin time and international normalized ratio; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. Urinalysis showed 3+ protein and 3+ blood, and microscopic examination of the sediment revealed 5 to 10 red cells per high-power field and granular casts. Urine and blood were obtained for culture. An electrocardiogram met (at a borderline level) the voltage criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy.

Table 1

Laboratory Data.

Dr. Rene Balza Romero: Computed tomography (CT) of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, performed after the intravenous administration of contrast material, revealed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules (including clusters in the right middle lobe and patchy and ground-glass opacities in the left upper lobe), trace pleural effusion in the left lung, coronary and valvular calcifications, and trace pericardial effusion, ascites, and anasarca. The scans also showed slight enlargement of the axillary lymph nodes (up to 11 mm in the short axis) bilaterally and a chronic-appearing compression fracture involving the T12 vertebral body.

Dr. Parsons: Morphine and lactated Ringer’s solution were administered intravenously. On the second day in the emergency department (also referred to as hospital day 2), the blood levels of haptoglobin, folate, and vitamin B₁₂ were normal; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. A rapid antigen test for malaria was positive. Wright–Giemsa staining of thick and thin peripheral-blood smears was negative for parasites; the smears also showed Döhle bodies and basophilic stippling. Antigliadin antibodies and anti–tissue transglutaminase antibodies were not detected. Tests for hepatitis A IgG and hepatitis C antibodies were positive. Tests for hepatitis B core and surface antibodies were negative. A test for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) was negative.

Findings on abdominal ultrasound imaging performed on the second day (Fig. 2A and 2B) were notable for a small volume of ascites and kidneys with echogenic parenchyma. Ultrasonography of the legs showed no deep venous thrombosis. An echocardiogram showed normal ventricular size and function, aortic sclerosis with mild aortic insufficiency, moderate tricuspid regurgitation, a right ventricular systolic pressure of 39 mm Hg, and a small circumferential pericardial effusion. Intravenous hydromorphone was administered, and the patient was admitted to the hospital.

Figure 2

Imaging Studies of the Abdomen and Hands.

On the third day (also referred to as hospital day 3), nucleic acid testing for cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, and hepatitis C virus was negative, and a stool antigen test for Helicobacter pylori was negative. An interferon-γ release assay for Mycobacterium tuberculosis was also negative. Oral acetaminophen and ivermectin and intravenous hydromorphone and furosemide were administered.

Dr. Balza Romero: Radiographs of the hands (Fig. 2C through 2F) showed joint-space narrowing of both radiocarpal joints and proximal interphalangeal erosions involving both hands. Radiographs of the shoulders showed arthritis of the glenohumeral joint and alignment suggestive of a tear of the right rotator cuff. A radiograph of the pelvis showed diffuse joint-space narrowing of the left hip, without osteophytosis, and an intact right hip prosthesis.

Dr. Parsons: Diagnostic tests were performed, and management decisions were made.

Differential Diagnosis

Dr. Beth L. Jonas: This patient is a 75-year-old woman who recently emigrated from Central America. She presented to this hospital with a multisystem disease involving the respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and musculoskeletal systems. Her medical history is notable for seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and multiple myeloma, which had been treated with melphalan and thalidomide. Relevant clinical features on presentation include unintended weight loss and cachexia, axillary lymphadenopathy, serositis, cytopenia in two cell lines, hypocomplementemia, and elevated serum free kappa and lambda light-chain levels (with a normal free light-chain ratio) with no monoclonal spike. The white-cell count was elevated, but she had no eosinophilia. CT images of the chest showed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules. With respect to the patient’s anemia, no schistocytes were present, the haptoglobin level was normal, and the iron studies were unremarkable. These findings, in combination with the elevated ferritin level, indicate anemia of chronic inflammation. The renal findings are most salient in the context of the patient’s hypertension, anasarca, elevated cystatin C level, active urinary sediment with proteinuria in the nephrotic range, and small, echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography.

In constructing a differential diagnosis, I will consider medication use, cancer, infectious disease, and autoimmune disease. Medications can be eliminated as the cause of this patient’s illness, since she was taking only levothyroxine, acetaminophen, and the antitussive agent pipazethate.

Cancer

The patient has a history of multiple myeloma, which may manifest with a multisystem disease involving the kidneys, but serum protein electrophoresis showed no monoclonal protein. Given the presence of nephrotic syndrome in the context of multiple myeloma, systemic immunoglobulin light-chain amyloidosis would be highest on the differential diagnosis with respect to cancer; however, the patient’s normal light-chain ratio makes this diagnosis unlikely. The development of myeloid neoplasms, such as acute myeloid leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, and myeloproliferative neoplasms, is important to consider in the context of previous treatment with alkylating agents,¹ which this patient had received. However, the peripheral-blood smear showed no findings that would indicate a hematologic cancer, and such a diagnosis would not explain the patient’s acute kidney injury with nephrotic-range proteinuria.

Infectious Disease

Several features of this patient’s case warrant special consideration, including her history of immunosuppression due to rheumatoid arthritis and to previously treated myeloma, along with the fact that she had emigrated from Central America, where certain infections may be prevalent. Infection with hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, HIV-1 and HIV-2, cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, H. pylori, and M. tuberculosis can be ruled out on the basis of laboratory studies. A rapid antigen test for plasmodium species was reported to be positive, but this assay has a known cross-reactivity with rheumatoid factor.² Moreover, the thick and thin peripheral-blood smears were negative. Thus, malaria would be an unlikely diagnosis.

The patient has a history of infection with chikungunya virus, an arbovirus transmitted by a mosquito vector that has been responsible for large epidemics in the Americas since 2013.³ Acute symptoms include fever, rash, arthralgia, and myalgia. The development of a chronic arthritis that may meet the classification criteria for rheumatoid arthritis, as defined by the American College of Rheumatology and the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology, has been reported in up to 60% of patients infected with chikungunya virus.^4,5 In the context of this discussion, I considered whether chikungunya virus infection could be the cause of this patient’s symptoms, since this infection occurred before the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. However, the degree of erosion and loss of joint space that was visible on radiographs would be most unusual for arthritis associated with chikungunya virus infection and would not explain the renal manifestations.

Strongyloidiasis is a helminth infection (caused by Strongyloides stercoralis) that is widespread in developing countries. Infection usually occurs through contact with soil, and most affected persons are asymptomatic. However, in immunosuppressed persons, strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome or a disseminated infection can develop as a consequence of accelerated autoinfection.⁶ The clinical presentation of strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome can include gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, constipation, nausea, or vomiting), respiratory symptoms (cough, dyspnea, or wheezing), and rash due to migration of larvae through the subcutaneous tissues. Of note, only a minority of patients present with eosinophilia. Several case reports describe the development of nephrotic-range proteinuria, thrombotic microangiopathy, and IgA vasculitis in patients with strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome.^7-9 However, strongyloidiasis would not explain this patient’s cytopenias and hypocomplementemia.

Autoimmune Disease

The patient has a 3-year history of rheumatoid arthritis, although her clinical features of swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, and joint instability suggest a longer duration of disease. We do not know whether she had received previous treatment with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs or biologic agents, but the possible use of such treatments may be a consideration with respect to her progression of disease and overall degree of immunosuppression. The blood levels of rheumatoid factor and anti–cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies were elevated, and radiographs of the hands showed erosive disease, although there was a relative paucity of metacarpophalangeal findings. A review of systems was negative for dry mouth, but her physical examination showed poor dentition and dry mouth — findings that make secondary Sjögren’s syndrome a consideration.

Renal disease can occur in patients with Sjögren’s syndrome. The two most typical presentations are tubulointerstitial nephritis and, less commonly, nephritic syndrome (membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis related to cryoglobulinemia). Tubulointerstitial nephritis may manifest with renal disease of varying severity, usually with a bland urinary sediment and often with abnormalities of tubular function such as distal renal tubular acidosis. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis caused by cryoglobulinemia is the most common glomerular disease associated with Sjögren’s syndrome. Although nephrotic-range proteinuria can occur with Sjögren’s syndrome, it is relatively uncommon.¹⁰ Renal disease is uncommon in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and is usually related to coexisting cardiovascular conditions. Medications used in the treatment of autoimmune disease — mainly nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs — may be associated with renal disease, but I would not expect the presence of an active urinary sediment, as was seen in this patient.

Amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis, a condition that is rare in the era of aggressive management of rheumatoid arthritis, has been described in patients with severe, long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis. Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a protein that is produced in the liver in response to chronic inflammation associated with interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the context of chronic infections, autoimmune disease (classically rheumatoid arthritis), autoinflammatory disease, and cancers including renal cell carcinoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.¹¹ Signs and symptoms of AA amyloidosis are related to the deposition of the protein in organs, and patients often present with multisystem signs and symptoms. The kidney is the organ that is most often affected, but deposition can occur in the heart, gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and lungs. Proteinuria is the first clinical manifestation in almost 95% of patients with AA amyloidosis, and 50% of affected patients present with nephrotic syndrome.¹² The urinary sediment is generally bland, and complement levels in the blood are normal. AA amyloidosis remains on the differential diagnosis in this patient, but it would not completely explain her renal disease.

Hypocomplementemia

The key to this case is understanding the cause of this patient’s hypocomplementemia. Hypocomplementemia can be due to decreased complement production in the context of liver disease, congenital complement deficiency, or increased complement consumption resulting from activation of the innate immune system. This patient has no history of chronic liver disease and her laboratory test results indicated good hepatic synthetic function. Classical complement deficiency (including C4 deficiency) that begins early in life is associated with autoimmune disease, and early C3 deficiency is characterized by severe pyogenic infections. It would be unusual for a patient of this age to be deficient in both C3 and C4 without earlier clinical consequences. I therefore concluded that the hypocomplementemia in this case was related to complement consumption.

Rheumatic diseases that may be associated with prominent renal manifestations include antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody–associated vasculitis, systemic sclerosis with renal crisis, cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, antiglomerular basement membrane disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Of those conditions, SLE would be the most likely to be manifested by an active urinary sediment and nephrotic-range proteinuria with consumption of both C3 and C4 in the context of fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis. This patient’s fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis also fit with this diagnosis.¹³

Because the patient has long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, a diagnosis of AA amyloidosis is strongly suspected. Moreover, given the presence of thrombocytopenia, hypocomplementemia, and an active urinary sediment, I would recommend a kidney biopsy to evaluate for lupus nephritis and AA amyloidosis.

Dr. Beth L. Jonas’s Diagnosis

Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus with amyloid A amyloidosis.

Pathological Discussion

Dr. Claire Trivin-Avillach: Testing for autoimmune antibodies was performed. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:5120 with a homogeneous pattern, and a test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:2560.

The diagnostic procedure in this case was a core-needle biopsy of the kidney. Examination of the specimen with light microscopy revealed 20 glomeruli, 45% of which were globally sclerosed, along with fibrosis involving approximately 60% of the interstitium and tubular atrophy. Diffusely enlarged glomeruli with thickened capillary walls and an expanded mesangium were weakly positive on periodic acid–Schiff staining; the glomeruli stained pale blue on Masson’s trichrome staining. Congo red staining revealed metachromatic salmon-colored deposition involving the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium, which was associated with apple-green birefringence when viewed under polarized light (Fig. 3A). In addition, mesangial and endocapillary hypercellularity was identified in approximately 30% of the nonsclerosed glomeruli and was associated with karyorrhexis (Fig. 3B). One cellular crescent was also detected. These features are characteristic of active proliferative glomerulonephritis.

Figure 3

Biopsy Specimen of the Kidney.

Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed prominent granular staining for IgG (4+), IgM (4+), C3 (3+), C1q (3+), IgA (1+), kappa (3+), and lambda (3+) along the glomerular basement membranes and within the mesangium, as well as focal granular deposits of IgG and C3 along the tubular basement membrane (Fig. 3C and 3D). Additional immunofluorescence studies showed strong positivity (4+) for SAA within the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium (Fig. 3E), whereas staining for beta₂-microglobulin, transthyretin, and apolipoprotein A1 was faint.

Electron microscopy revealed the presence of subendothelial and mesangial electron-dense deposits (with no substructure identified) adjacent to randomly arranged fibrils (measuring 8.2 to 10.6 nm in diameter) within the glomerular basement membranes and the mesangium (Fig. 3F). Glomerular endothelial cells appeared reactive and contained tubuloreticular inclusions, features that were suggestive of interferon-mediated activation.

The findings on Congo red staining were characteristic of amyloidosis with typical birefringent material. The strong positivity of SAA within the deposits as compared with the faint staining of other reactants identified the type of amyloid as SAA, which is consistent with the patient’s history of rheumatoid arthritis. The biopsy also showed an immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis with a “full house” pattern (defined as positivity for the three immunoglobulin classes IgG, IgM, and IgA and the two complement components C3 and C1q, in reference to the “full house” hand in a poker game). Immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis has been reported in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who were receiving anti–TNF-α therapy,¹⁴ which was not the case in this patient. The positive test for hepatitis C antibodies prompted consideration of hepatitis C–related membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. However, taken together, the negative nucleic acid test for hepatitis C virus, the full house pattern on immunofluorescence, the tubular basement membrane deposits, and the positive test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies favor a diagnosis of lupus nephritis of at least class III (defined as focal proliferative glomerulonephritis), according to the criteria of the International Society of Nephrology and the Renal Pathology Society, superimposed on AA amyloidosis.

Pathological Diagnosis

Proliferative lupus nephritis of International Society of Nephrology and Renal Pathology Society class III, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.

Discussion of Management

Dr. Pui W. Cheung: On the basis of the finding of echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography and the findings of extensive interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy on kidney biopsy, we know that this patient has advanced chronic kidney disease that is unlikely to be reversible. The patient is also noted to have a markedly lower glomerular filtration rate (GFR) than that predicted by the blood creatinine level owing to the presence of cachexia, and this is substantiated by the cystatin C–based GFR and a 24-hour creatinine clearance of 22 ml per minute per 1.73 m² of body-surface area. The typical induction therapy for stage III or IV lupus nephritis consists of high-dose glucocorticoids and either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Other reasonable alternatives for initial therapy include mycophenolate mofetil in combination with either a calcineurin inhibitor or belimumab, or cyclophosphamide in combination with belimumab.¹⁵ Hydroxychloroquine is also recommended as part of the therapy, since it has shown benefits in improving the response to treatment and reducing disease flare.¹⁶ Mycophenolate mofetil and cyclophosphamide have similar efficacy with respect to clinical response, which includes a reduction in proteinuria and either an improvement in renal function or stabilization of renal function; the risks of infections and adverse events associated with these medications are also similar.^17,18

Given the severity of the lupus nephritis with overlying AA amyloidosis from active rheumatoid arthritis, the treatment options proposed were high-dose glucocorticoids and rituximab with either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide.¹⁹ After discussions with multidisciplinary consultants from rheumatology, infectious diseases, and nephrology, lingering concerns were raised about infection and patient frailty; ultimately, the decision was made to initiate high-dose glucocorticoid therapy in combination with mycophenolate mofetil, rituximab, and hydroxychloroquine.

The patient’s mycophenolate mofetil dose regimen was inconsistent owing to gastrointestinal side effects, and the treatment was eventually withheld because of pancytopenia and fever. Unfortunately, her kidney function worsened, and renal replacement therapy was initiated within 3 weeks after the start of the induction therapy. The cause of her renal failure was thought to be disease progression, compounded by hemodynamically mediated tubular injury in the context of infection. While the administration of mycophenolate mofetil was stopped, treatment with rituximab was continued, with slow tapering of the glucocorticoid dose at the direction of the rheumatologist. She remained dependent on dialysis and was deemed to have end-stage kidney disease after 3 months of dialysis.

Dr. Lisa G. Criscione-Schreiber: The patient has SLE with nephritis, seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic AA amyloidosis. AA amyloidosis is rare owing to the availability of effective therapies for rheumatoid arthritis and is managed through aggressive treatment of inflammation due to rheumatoid arthritis. Reports addressing the management of rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis generally cite stability of end-organ damage caused by AA amyloid as evidence of effective management of the condition (through treatment of the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis). Methotrexate, the cornerstone of treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, is contraindicated in this case owing to the presence of kidney disease. The alkylating agent cyclophosphamide has been reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis from rheumatoid arthritis²⁰ and has known efficacy in patients with lupus nephritis, both of which make it a viable treatment option. Rituximab has also been reported to be effective for managing rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis,²¹ is approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and is used for manifestations of SLE, including thrombocytopenia and nephritis. Although anti–TNF-α agents, abatacept, and Janus kinase inhibitors are reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis,²² recent publications have coalesced on the ability of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to block interleukin-6–induced hepatic production of SAA.^23-25

The overlap of seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and SLE (sometimes termed “rhupus”) usually resembles rheumatoid arthritis more than SLE; manifestations include thrombocytosis, leukocytosis, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, an elevated blood level of C-reactive protein, and the presence of marginal erosions on radiographs.²⁶ In contrast, SLE without seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis characteristically manifests with thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate but usually not an elevated C-reactive protein level; in addition, nonerosive inflammatory arthritis with reversible deformities is commonly observed. This patient had a mixed laboratory profile, on the basis of the results of antinuclear antibody and anti–double-stranded DNA antibody tests. The challenge of treating an overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and SLE is choosing disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs that are effective and safe in both conditions. This patient’s most severe disease manifestation is lupus nephritis; therefore, the treatment regimen must target nephritis along with the AA amyloidosis and inflammatory arthritis.

As noted earlier, current induction therapy for lupus nephritis includes either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Mycophenolate mofetil may provide inadequate treatment of the rheumatoid arthritis and amyloidosis, whereas cyclophosphamide would treat the lupus nephritis, has possible efficacy for treatment of the AA amyloidosis, and would treat the rheumatoid arthritis. Rituximab could be added to cyclophosphamide or mycophenolate mofetil to treat the rheumatoid arthritis and resultant AA amyloidosis and could also possibly help treat the lupus nephritis. The addition of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide is an intriguing option that may effectively treat the rheumatoid arthritis and subsequent AA amyloidosis. The addition of belimumab to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide has been reported to improve renal response in patients with lupus nephritis,²⁷ as has the addition of voclosporin to mycophenolate mofetil.²⁸ However, belimumab is ineffective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and voclosporin has not been studied in patients with rheumatoid arthritis or in those with a GFR of 45 milliliters per minute or less. The high-dose glucocorticoids that are used in induction therapy for lupus nephritis will effectively manage this patient’s inflammatory arthritis and probably also the subsequent AA amyloidosis. Finally, it is important that every patient with lupus nephritis receive hydroxychloroquine, which improves the treatment response to induction therapy.²⁹

Follow-up

Dr. Parsons: The patient’s hospital course was further complicated by suspected immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, for which she received intravenous immune globulin. Her pancytopenia and arthritis ultimately abated. Unfortunately, she did not have renal recovery and continues to receive hemodialysis. After a prolonged hospital course, she was discharged home.

Final Diagnosis

Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus complicated by proliferative lupus nephritis, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.