湖州市中心医院额叶恶性肿瘤推荐专家

简介:

湖州市中心医院，作为一家历史悠久、综合实力雄厚的三级甲等综合性医院，始终以患者为中心，致力于为广大市民提供优质的医疗服务。医院设有多个重点科室，其中神经外科便是其中的佼佼者。神经外科专注于治疗各类脑部疾病，包括生长于颅内的脑瘤。这些脑瘤可能是由脑实质发生的原发性脑瘤，也可能是由身体其他部位转移至颅内的继发性脑瘤。湖州市中心医院神经外科拥有一支经验丰富、技术精湛的医护团队，科室医生数量众多，其中不乏知名专家。科室推荐专家名称包括但不限于张教授、李医生等，他们凭借丰富的临床经验和精湛的医术，为患者提供了高质量的诊疗服务。神经外科针对脑瘤等疾病，开展了一系列先进的诊疗技术，如微创手术、靶向治疗等，力求为患者带来最佳的治疗效果。科室相关疾病名称包括脑膜瘤、胶质瘤、垂体瘤、颅神经瘤等，涵盖了大部分颅内肿瘤疾病。湖州市中心医院神经外科作为医院重点科室之一，始终秉承“以患者为中心”的服务理念，不断提升医疗技术水平，为广大患者提供优质的医疗服务。医院将继续加强科室建设，为湖州及周边地区人民的健康保驾护航。生长于颅内的肿瘤通称为脑瘤,包括由脑实质发生的原发性脑瘤和由身体其他部位转移至颅内的继发性脑瘤。其病因不明,肿瘤发生自脑、脑膜、脑垂体、颅神经、脑血管和胚胎残余组织者,称为原发性颅内肿瘤。由身体其它脏器组织的恶性肿瘤转移至颅内者,称为继发性颅内肿瘤。，原因未明。，额叶，①主要是手术切除肿瘤,手术切除的原则是:凡良性肿瘤应力争全切除以达到治愈的效果;凡恶性肿瘤或位于重要功能区的良性肿瘤,应根据病人情况和技术条件予以大部切除或部分切除,以达到减压为目的。②凡恶性肿瘤或未能全切除而对放射线敏感的良性肿瘤,术后均应进行放射治疗。③恶性肿瘤,特别是胶质瘤和转移瘤,术后除放射治疗外,尚可通过不同途径和方式给予化学药物治疗,简称化疗。为提高恶性脑瘤手术后的效果和延长病人生存期,应用放疗、化疗、免疫治疗,统称为脑瘤的综合性治疗。，颅内肿瘤常需与颅内炎症如脑蛛网膜炎、化脓性与结核性脑膜炎、结核瘤、脑脓肿、慢性硬膜下血肿、脑内血肿、高血压脑病与脑梗塞、颅内寄生虫病、肉芽肿、霉菌病、视神经乳头炎与球后视神经炎等相鉴别。，１忌吃腌制的食物；如咸鸡、咸鱼、咸肉；２忌吃富含油脂的食物；如猪油、肥肉、羊油；３忌吃不容易消化的食物；如年糕、粽子、螺丝肉。，1.影像学检查 2.CT检查 11.磁共振成像，。

true 李国平主治医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：99% 接诊量：5.5万平均响应：2小时

擅长呼吸系统，消化系统，内分泌系统等疾病。咳嗽，咳痰，肺炎，腹痛，胸闷，发热，低热，止咳，止咳化痰，化痰，嗓子哑，清火，咽喉肿痛，儿童鼻塞，退烧，腹泻。

true 郑跃副主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：99% 接诊量：1.1万平均响应：-

常见内科慢性疾病的防治和健康咨询，如高血压，糖尿病，冠心病等。

false 郭飞副主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：- 接诊量：- 平均响应：-

擅长用穴位埋线、火针、麦粒灸、正骨推拿、刺血疗法等相结合治疗神经内科和骨科等疾病。具有痛苦小，疗程短，疗效佳，费用低廉的特点！

false 王国荣副主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：- 接诊量：- 平均响应：-

骨关节疾病的诊治

false 卢振产副主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：- 接诊量：- 平均响应：-

头晕头痛，脑血管疾病，运动神经元病，遗传性肌病

false 李建有主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：- 接诊量：- 平均响应：-

肩、膝、髋关节损伤与疾病的关节镜与关节置换手术，肩袖损伤、肩周炎、膝关节韧带损伤、半月板损伤的微创治疗及股骨头坏死，髋、膝关节骨性关节炎的关节置换治疗

true 范振国主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：- 接诊量：1 平均响应：-

长期从事精神医学临床医生工作，擅长抑郁症，焦虑症及青少年心理卫生疾病的治疗及相关心理咨询。

true 李雄峰主任医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：95% 接诊量：21 平均响应：3小时

擅长足踝疾病，手外科，四肢创伤。

false 沈施耘主治医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：100% 接诊量：6 平均响应：-

骨科

false 陈文祥主治医师

三级甲等湖州市中心医院

好评率：- 接诊量：3 平均响应：-

脊柱及关节常见疾病的诊治

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3岁女孩额叶肿瘤化疗后排尿困难咨询

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3岁女孩化疗后出现排尿困难。

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2024-10-30 21:24:23

科普文章

肿瘤治疗线上咨询简单说

最近咨询肿瘤治疗的人很多，为了能够给咨询者最快最适合的诊治意见。我建议咨询者，用最简单的文字把肿瘤患者的检查材料书写全面。比如:是什么部位肿瘤，肿瘤大小，是否有局部浸润及远处转移，病理诊断，免疫组化及基因和免疫检查结果等，减少再咨询时间。

因为不同肿瘤治疗不同，同一肿瘤不同分期治疗也不同。再者是否有其他疾病，现在高龄肿瘤患者越来越多，肿瘤的治疗不能只看病，不看人，因为疾病长在人身上。那么治疗疾病就不能只见病不见人，一叶障慕的治疗，不会取得最好疗效。所以，为了节省时间，获得最适合的诊疗方案，建议您辛苦一下了。

肿瘤的不同治疗手段比较

对于大部分可以切除的恶性实体肿瘤而言，最有效的治疗手段仍然是外科治疗，其治疗效果优于同是局部治疗手段的放射治疗和介入治疗。但是随着医疗技术的进步，部分肿瘤可以通过放疗和介入治疗，也获得和类似根治性手术同样的效果，而且创伤小。

肿瘤的全身治疗除了能控制局部肿瘤进展之外。更多着重于控制肿瘤的全身进展和转移。肿瘤化疗强调多疗程足剂量的用药方法，目的是尽可能彻底杀灭肿瘤细胞。肿瘤生物治疗则更强调机体的自身免疫反应机体内环境的平衡。

在肿瘤的治疗中，单一方法往往不能达到治愈肿瘤的目的。应该联合不同的方法以弥补各自的不足。各种治疗方法的相互作用也很重要，最好是多学科综合治疗。

肿瘤侵袭及转移的主要途径是什么？

肿瘤侵袭的主要途径有：

沿组织间隙炎

沿淋巴管炎

沿血管

沿浆膜面或黏膜面等方式

肿瘤细胞侵及周围间之后，一般都在压力最小处增值生长，形成不规则肿块。浸润的肿瘤侵袭临近的淋巴管和血管。肿瘤细胞进入局部毛细血管或小静脉后沿血管壁生长。

肿瘤转移的主要途径有：

淋巴转移

血行转移

种植转移

淋巴转移是肿瘤常见转移途径，特别是上皮组织的恶性肿瘤，多经淋巴转移。血行转移是指在周围间质中浸润的肿瘤细胞，穿过血管内皮细胞间吸在血管内形成瘤栓。种植转移是指除淋巴转移，血行转移外的一种恶性肿瘤的转移途径。可导致浆膜面，粘膜面或其他部位转移瘤的生长。

肿瘤的一级预防有哪些

一级预防，也就是常说的病因预防。人类肿瘤的发生是环境因素越机体长期作用的结果。针对消除这些致癌因素所采取的措施就是一级预防。

减少和消除肿瘤的危险因素可以使用控制环境中的化学致癌因素和物理致癌因素以及生物者因素。加强对已明确的环境致癌物的监测，控制和消除。防治环境污染。近日去除或取代与职业接触有关的职业致癌因素。物理因素，如各种射线。生物因素，包括病毒，细菌和寄生虫。

生活方式与肿瘤的发生逐渐成为重要的肿瘤危险因素。目前认为吸烟是全世界癌症的最大的，可预防的致癌因素。酒精是辅助致癌物。调整膳食结构及饮食习惯，食量，运动保持健康体重。

在提倡健康的生活方式的同时，还应提倡主义口腔卫生，以防止口腔癌，食道癌等。注意心理平衡，保持乐观心态，从而增强机体抗癌能力。

肿瘤发生的原因？

很多患者都私信我，问我肿瘤是什么原因导致的，今天就来告诉大家，哪些原因可以导致肿瘤的发生。

1、化学药物：19世纪日本学着首先发现了煤焦油诱发皮肤癌，之后发现烷化剂，多环芳烃类，芳香胺类，偶氮染料及亚硝基化合物可以导致肿瘤，这些可以人工合成，也有天然的，其中污染的空气，水和食物都有可能存在；

2、物理因素：特别是电离辐射，紫外线辐射，还有就是石棉，都是肯定的致癌因素；

3、生物因素如病毒感染和细菌感染，目前主要发现的有肝炎病毒，EB病毒，HPV病毒，还有就是幽门螺旋杆菌和肝吸虫；

4、基因及遗传因素：如RB1基因突变导致视网膜母细胞瘤，BRCA1、2基因突变导致乳腺癌卵巢癌综合征等；

5、不良的生活方式：吸烟，喝酒，肥胖，体力活动少都有导致肿瘤的风险。

总而言之，肿瘤的发生大多数都是多因素长期反复的一个过程，是一个缓慢形成的过程。

肿瘤标记物异常，需要担心吗？怎么办？

不论是肿瘤患者，还是经常进行体检的人，对于肿瘤标志物一定不陌生。肿瘤标志物常常因为其“名字”而引诸多恐慌，如果看到肿瘤标志物的数值超过参考值，患者会担心是不是肿瘤复发了，非肿瘤患者会觉得是不是得肿瘤了。
下面总结一下大家常见的疑问。
1.肿瘤标志物超出参考值，是肿瘤复发/得肿瘤了吗？

肿瘤标志物（tumor markers，TM）是在肿瘤发生和增殖过程中，由肿瘤细胞本身合成、释放，或由机体对肿瘤细胞反应而产生的标志肿瘤存在和生长的一类物质；能够帮助进行肿瘤筛查、诊断、预后、评估治疗疗效以及检测肿瘤复发。

虽然，肿瘤标志物对于肿瘤有一定提示作用，但一次超过参考值，并不能说明肿瘤是否发生或复发，只有多次的动态监测结果才能被称为“有意义”，在检测病情时联合影像学检查会更全面，如果要确诊，病理结果才是“金标准”。其次，这些“标记物”也可能源于正常的细胞表达，正常人，这个标记物数值也不会为0。

所以，肿瘤标志物并不能为肿瘤是否发生或复发等给出明确的答案，一定要结合影像学检查和病理结果才能得出结论，所以如果肿瘤标志物超出参考值，不必先心神不宁，及时复查或者肿瘤科医生咨询才是应该做的事。

2.常见的肿瘤标志物有哪些？
最常见、最广谱的肿瘤标志物
CEA，癌胚抗原，是个很常用的肿瘤标志物，适用于结肠癌、胃癌、肺癌、乳腺癌、甲状腺癌、卵巢癌、子宫癌多种肿瘤，几乎所有的肿瘤患者或者检查肿瘤标记物的体检人群都会查这个肿瘤标志物，这个指标虽然无诊断价值，但有助于检测多种肿瘤的复发、转移，判断预后，尤其是明显升高的时候，需要高度重视。
一些正常组织也会分泌少量CEA，此外吸烟人群的CEA也会略微升高，还有一些良性疾病也会导致CEA升高，因此CEA升高不一定就是肿瘤复发。但如果CEA呈几百、上千的升高，一定要警惕。

3.肺癌常用肿瘤标志物
CEA，上文提到的最常见的肿瘤标志物CEA，对肺腺癌有较好的敏感性。
SCC，鳞癌抗原，用于检测鳞状细胞癌，常用于肺鳞癌的检查等。
Cyfra21-1，细胞角蛋白19片段抗原，是非小细胞肺癌最有价值的血清肿瘤标记物，其对鳞癌的敏感性也较高。
NSE，神经元特异性烯醇化酶，是监测小细胞肺癌的首选标志物，敏感性和特异性都相对较高。
proGRP，胃泌素释放肽前体，同样是是小细胞癌的特异性肿瘤标记物，常常与NSE联合用于小细胞肺癌的监测。

4.消化系统肿瘤常用标志物
AFP，甲胎蛋白，是目前最常用、最佳的原发性肝细胞肝癌(HCC)诊断标志物。AFP显著升高一般提示原发性肝癌，但未发现与肿瘤大小、恶性程度有相关。此外，生殖细胞肿瘤，妊娠时也会升高。
CA724，胃癌相关抗原，是目前诊断胃癌的最佳肿瘤标志物之一。
CA199，是公认的最重要的胆管癌肿瘤标志物，对于胆管癌的诊断价值较高；同时，也是胰腺癌敏感标志物，有助于胰腺癌的鉴别诊断和病情监测。
CA242，在消化道恶性肿瘤患者血清中的水平经常异常增高，特别是在胰腺癌、结直肠癌中，对结直肠癌诊断的敏感性和特异性较高。
CA50，是一种广谱肿瘤标记物，主要用于胰腺癌、结肠癌、直肠癌、胃癌的辅助诊断，其中胰腺癌病人升高明显。这个标记物相对缺乏特异性。

5.乳腺癌常用肿瘤标志物
CA153，是由肿瘤细胞分泌入血的一种乳腺癌相关抗原，一般不作为乳腺癌的早期诊断指标，在乳腺癌中晚期及术后复发、转移的过程中，价值较为突出。

6.女性肿瘤常用肿瘤标志物
女性体检，可以参考选择下列标记物哈～
CA125，与其他卵巢癌相关的肿瘤标志物相比，CA125具有更高的临床使用价值，HE4也是一种较为理想的卵巢肿瘤标志物，两者常联合使用。
SCC，上文提到的SCC对于宫颈癌的诊断有很好的应用价值，与其他肿瘤一样，用于宫颈癌的肿瘤标志物也常常是多个连用，比如与CA125、CEA、CA199等联用。

7.前列腺癌肿瘤标志物
PSA，前列腺癌特异性抗原，是目前被广泛用于临床的前列腺癌肿瘤标志物。
膀胱癌肿瘤标志物
NMP22，系核基质蛋白，可作为膀胱癌早期诊断及预后评估的依据，但临床应用减较少。

上述只提到了某些肿瘤常用的肿瘤标志物，实际临床上使用的肿瘤标志物会更多。
此外，肿瘤与肿瘤标志物之间不是一一对应的关系，即不是说某个肿瘤标志物只对应某一种肿瘤，而且肿瘤标志物也不只存在于肿瘤中，正常组织也会分泌，只是数量有所不同。因此，针对某一种肿瘤，在临床上一定会选择多个肿瘤标志物联合检测。

中年人记忆力下降怎么办？

中年人出现记忆力下降，需警惕阿尔茨海默病，该病是易发于中老年人的神经系统退行性病变，早期表现以近期记忆力下降为主，除此之外多发脑梗死，癫痫，脑炎，帕金森病，脱髓鞘脑病也可以出现记忆力下降，应及时就诊神经内科，完善记忆量表以及颅脑影像学检查，明确病因，对因治疗。

当中年人出现记忆力下降时，不必过度焦虑，应乐观面对现状。不听信谣言，乱用民间偏方，以免耽误治疗时机。保持日常的体育运动，保证食物的正常摄入，多吃蔬菜水果，保持大便通畅，保证每晚睡眠质量。及时就医，在医师的指导下进行治疗。

病例31-2023：一名79岁男性，身体不自主运动，一过性反应迟钝

以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。

Presentation of Case

Dr. Carrie Chui (Neurology): A 79-year-old man was admitted to this hospital because of involuntary movements on the left side and transient unresponsiveness.

The patient had been in his usual state of health until 9 months before admission, when involuntary movements of the left shoulder and left side of the face developed. The movements were described by the patient as twitching, were not associated with a change in the level of consciousness, and resolved after 1 to 2 minutes. During the next 6 months, the patient had similar episodes approximately once per month, but the episodes increased in duration, lasting 5 to 6 minutes.

Three months before admission, the episodes of involuntary movements increased in frequency, and the patient was evaluated by his primary care physician. The physical examination was normal. Results of kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 129 mmol per liter (reference range, 135 to 145). There was a history of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion, and the sodium level was similar to levels obtained during the past 4 years. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the head (Figure 1A), performed before and after the administration of intravenous contrast material, revealed a focus of enhancement in the right middle frontal gyrus that was thought to be a small vascular anomaly. Electroencephalography (EEG), performed with the patient in awake and drowsy states, revealed rare, brief, focal slowing in the left temporal lobe during drowsiness; no epileptiform abnormalities were present.

Figure 1

MRI of the Head and CT Angiogram of the Head and Neck.

Two months before admission, the patient was evaluated in the epilepsy clinic affiliated with this hospital. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements had increased in both frequency and duration, occurring once or twice per day and lasting approximately 10 minutes. Episodes began with tingling and numbness in the left leg that prompted the patient to voluntarily stomp the left foot to relieve the uncomfortable sensation. Then, the patient had involuntary movements that he described as an uncontrollable invisible force moving the left leg and arm, with hyperextension of the arm backward and pronation of the wrist. There was associated numbness in the distal portions of the left third, fourth, and fifth fingers and involuntary movement of the left cheek. No prodromal symptoms occurred. The patient had awareness during the episodes, and after the episodes, he felt fatigued but had a normal level of consciousness, without confusion. The examination in the epilepsy clinic was normal. A diagnosis of seizure disorder was considered, and treatment with levetiracetam was started.

Three weeks before admission, the patient was again evaluated in the epilepsy clinic. He reported that the episodes of involuntary movements still occurred on a daily basis but had decreased in duration and involved only the left leg, without abnormal movements of the arm or face. Dizziness, headache, and weakness had developed and were attributed to the use of levetiracetam. The patient’s family had recorded a video of one of the episodes of involuntary movements. After reviewing the video, the patient’s neurologist thought that the episodes were less likely to be caused by seizures and more consistent with choreoathetoid movements. Cross-tapering of medications — with the simultaneous administration of levetiracetam in decreasing doses and clobazam in increasing doses — was initiated, and the patient was referred to the movement disorders clinic affiliated with this hospital.

On the morning of admission, an episode of involuntary movements of the left leg and left shoulder occurred and persisted for 1 hour. Several hours after the symptoms abated, the patient’s wife found the patient to be unresponsive; he was sitting in a chair. Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was responsive. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 180 mg per deciliter (10.0 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 110/80 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.

In the emergency department, the patient reported dysuria and increased urinary frequency. The patient’s daughter noted that he had been more anxious during the past 3 years and occasionally had trouble with memory. Other medical history included Barrett’s esophagus, benign prostatic hypertrophy, chronic hepatitis B virus infection, eczema, gastroesophageal reflux disease, hypertension, nonischemic cardiomyopathy, and osteoporosis. There was no history of head trauma or extended loss of consciousness. Medications included aspirin, atorvastatin, doxazosin, finasteride, omeprazole, metoprolol, sacubitril, and valsartan. There were no known drug allergies. The patient was a lifelong nonsmoker and drank alcohol rarely; he did not use illicit drugs. His mother had had gastric cancer, and his sister had had esophageal cancer; there was no family history of seizures.

On examination, the temporal temperature was 36.8°C, the blood pressure 152/97 mm Hg, the pulse 65 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 16 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 96% while the patient was breathing ambient air. The body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) was 21.7. The blood pressure decreased to 130/63 mm Hg with standing. The patient was alert and interactive. The lower jaw was held to the left, but the nasolabial folds and smile were symmetric with activation. There were nonrhythmic, nonstereotyped, writhing movements of the left arm. Tone was normal, and strength was assessed as 5 out of 5 in the arms and legs. Results of liver-function and kidney-function tests were normal, as were blood levels of glucose and electrolytes, except for the sodium level, which was 125 mmol per liter. The lactate level was 2.1 mmol per liter (19 mg per deciliter; reference range, 0.5 to 2.0 mmol per liter [5 to 18 mg per deciliter]). The urinalysis was normal. Intravenous fluids were administered. Imaging studies were obtained.

Dr. Rajiv Gupta: Computed tomographic (CT) angiography of the head and neck (Figure 1B) revealed extensively calcified plaque with severe stenosis of the distal right common carotid artery (CCA), extending into the proximal right internal carotid artery (ICA), as well as stenosis of the right and left paraclinoid ICAs and the left vertebral artery at its origin. There was no vascular abnormality on the CT angiogram that corresponded to the abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus seen on the previous MRI.

Dr. Chui: The patient was admitted to the hospital. On the second hospital day, the sodium level had increased to 130 mmol per liter, and the lactate level was normal. Additional imaging studies were obtained.

Dr. Gupta: MRI of the head showed no evidence of acute infarction. The focus of enhancement in the right frontal lobe that had been noted previously was not seen on the current MRI.

Dr. Chui: Blood levels of thyrotropin, cobalamin, and glycated hemoglobin and results of coagulation tests were normal. Screening tests for Lyme disease, tuberculosis, and syphilis were negative, as were tests for antibodies to cardiolipin and β₂-glycoprotein. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive, at a titer of 1:160 in a homogeneous pattern. During a physical therapy session, the patient had abnormal movements of the left leg, left arm, and left side of the face. The abnormal movements diminished when the patient used distraction techniques, such as thigh tapping, finger snapping, and walking while holding a glass of water.

The transient unresponsiveness that led to the patient’s admission was attributed to a combination of sedation from clobazam and hypovolemia. Treatment with clobazam was stopped, and hydration was encouraged. A diagnosis of functional neurologic disorder was considered; outpatient physical therapy with continued use of distraction techniques was recommended. The patient was discharged home on the third hospital day.

Episodes of involuntary movements continued to occur on a daily basis at home. Two weeks after discharge, when the patient was doing exercises while sitting in a chair and having a conversation with his wife, he suddenly stopped talking. She found him slumped in the chair with his eyes closed, no longer exercising. When she asked him questions, he repeatedly said “yes.” Emergency medical services were called, and when they arrived, the patient was alert, diaphoretic, and nonverbal. He had a facial droop on the left side and a right gaze preference. The fingerstick blood glucose level was 130 mg per deciliter (7.2 mmol per liter) and the blood pressure 120/60 mm Hg. The patient was transported to the emergency department of this hospital for further evaluation.

In the emergency department, the temporal temperature was 36.6°C, the blood pressure 143/63 mm Hg, the pulse 66 beats per minute, the respiratory rate 18 breaths per minute, and the oxygen saturation 98% while the patient was breathing ambient air. He was alert and interactive. There was a facial droop on the left side. There was no effort against gravity in the left arm. The patient was able to lift the left leg off the bed for 1 to 2 seconds. He had a right gaze deviation that could not be overcome and mild dysarthria. The remainder of the examination was normal. A diagnosis of stroke was considered, and emergency CT angiography was performed.

Dr. Gupta: CT angiography showed no evidence of acute territorial infarction and no changes in cerebrovascular disease.

Dr. Chui: On repeat physical examination performed after CT angiography, the gaze deviation and dysarthria had resolved, and strength was normal. Mild facial paralysis was present.

A diagnosis was made.

Differential Diagnosis

Dr. Albert Y. Hung: This 79-year-old man initially presented with involuntary movements of the left shoulder and face without associated loss of consciousness. Diagnosis of an unusual movement disorder, especially one that is present episodically, can be challenging. Videos brought in by the patient can be very useful.¹ Most movement disorders result from abnormal functioning of extrapyramidal circuits involving the basal ganglia, rather than a specific neuroanatomical lesion, and the first step toward diagnosis is to identify the type of abnormal movements.²

Four salient aspects of this patient’s involuntary movements can help in characterizing the movement disorder before generating a differential diagnosis. First, the movements were paroxysmal, lasting for short periods of time with resolution between episodes. Second, the movements were nonstereotyped, appearing randomly and variably. Third, the movements were restricted to the left side of his body throughout the course, localizing the disease process to the right cerebral hemisphere. Finally, the symptoms were progressive, increasing in both duration and frequency.

Movement Disorders

This patient had abnormal involuntary movements, symptoms indicative of a hyperkinetic movement disorder. Tremor, the most common hyperkinetic disorder, is unlikely because the patient did not have rhythmic movements. Dystonia is also unlikely, because he did not have sustained muscle contractions that were causing twisting or abnormal postures of the legs, arms, head, neck, or face. Although the patient initially described the movements as twitching, his later descriptions are not suggestive of myoclonus or tics, which manifest as sudden, rapid, recurrent movements.

This patient’s neurologist described the involuntary movements as “choreoathetoid” after reviewing a video of an episode. Chorea, athetosis, and ballism make up a spectrum of involuntary movements that often occur in combination. Chorea refers to involuntary movements that are “dancelike” — irregular, random, unintended, and flowing from one body part to another. When these movements are slow and writhing (with a lower amplitude) and involve the distal limbs, the term athetosis is used. The presence of both chorea and athetosis in the same patient is referred to as choreoathetosis. When the movements are fast and flinging (with a higher amplitude) and involve the proximal limbs, the term ballism is used. Although the description of this patient’s movements was not clearly suggestive of ballism, hemichorea and hemiballismus often occur together.

The term dyskinesia can refer to any abnormal movements and is often used to describe hyperkinetic disorders that are induced by specific drugs, such as tardive dyskinesia induced by dopamine antagonists or dyskinesia induced by levodopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Often, dyskinesia manifests as chorea or choreoathetoid movements, but chorea and dyskinesia are not synonymous. This patient appears to have involuntary dyskinesia with choreoathetosis as the primary phenomenology. Before constructing a differential diagnosis for dyskinesia in this patient, I will consider two conditions that mimic dyskinesia: seizures and functional movement disorder.

Seizures

Various movement disorders may be mistaken for seizures, although these movement disorders are not associated with EEG abnormalities during the episode. Patients with some forms of epilepsy may present with abnormal movements without other features that are typically associated with seizures, such as aura, change in responsiveness, incontinence, or a postictal state.^3,4 Seizures were initially suspected in this patient, and he was referred to the epilepsy clinic. Recurrent focal seizures were probably suspected because of the transient nature of the episodes. Initial MRI had shown a small abnormality in the right middle frontal gyrus, but this finding was not seen on follow-up imaging, which makes it unlikely to be related to the overall presentation. Baseline EEG had shown only brief left temporal slowing, without epileptiform abnormalities. The EEG was an interictal study, so the findings do not rule out seizures. However, the slowing was ipsilateral to the abnormal movements, so it is unlikely to be related to the episodes. In addition, the patient’s involuntary movements were nonstereotyped and nonrhythmic, which makes his presentation unlikely to be due to a seizure disorder.

Functional Movement Disorder

Because this patient’s movements diminished with the use of distraction techniques, a diagnosis of functional movement disorder was considered. Most cases of functional movement disorder begin abruptly after a trigger, such as a mild physical injury or illness; a psychological stressor can be present but is not required for diagnosis. Symptoms are typically most severe around the time of onset and may wax and wane over time. Although distractibility is a finding associated with functional disorders, abnormal movements that occur with nonfunctional syndromes can sometimes be suppressed by action or incorporated into voluntary movements in a manner that may appear distractible. Several clinical features in this patient make a diagnosis of functional disorder unlikely. Functional movement disorder is more common in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 40 years.⁵ In addition, tremor is the most common clinical phenotype seen in patients with functional movement disorder; chorea or choreoathetosis, which was seen in this patient, is very unusual in patients with functional movement disorder. Overall, functional movement disorder is unlikely to explain this patient’s presentation.

Dyskinesia

Primary paroxysmal dyskinesia refers to a group of heterogeneous syndromes characterized by recurrent involuntary movements that occur episodically and abruptly, without loss of consciousness.⁶ These disorders usually begin in childhood or young adulthood. Both the age of this patient and the described phenomenology make a diagnosis of primary paroxysmal dyskinesia unlikely.

The differential diagnosis in this case is therefore focused on causes of secondary dyskinesia, of which there are many.⁷ MRI ruled out the presence of a mass lesion suggestive of cancer. The patient had no history of acute illness suggestive of a viral or other infectious encephalitis, and there was no history of trauma or exposure to drugs or other toxins. Although his daughter mentioned trouble with memory, there was no compelling history suggestive of a neurodegenerative disease.

A common metabolic cause of secondary dyskinesia is diabetic striatopathy, a syndrome involving the acute-to-subacute onset of chorea and ballism in the context of hyperglycemia.⁸ This syndrome can occur as the initial manifestation of type 2 diabetes mellitus or as a complication of poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetic striatopathy is more likely to develop in women than in men, and the average age at onset is 70 years. Most patients present with hemichorea and hemiballismus, rather than bilateral symptoms. CT shows hyperdensity, and T1-weighted MRI shows hyperintensity, in the contralateral basal ganglia. However, this patient had no history of diabetes and had a normal blood glycated hemoglobin level, features that rule out a diagnosis of diabetic striatopathy.

Choreiform movements can also be a manifestation of autoimmune conditions.⁹ This patient’s initial presentation with unilateral shoulder and face movements would have suggested the possibility of faciobrachial dystonic seizures associated with anti–leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated 1 (anti-LGI1) encephalitis.¹⁰ This condition is often associated with hyponatremia, which was present in this patient. However, as the case evolved, leg involvement and sensory changes developed that would be atypical for anti-LGI1 encephalitis.

One key clue in this case is that the patient did not have an isolated movement disorder. In addition to motor symptoms, he had a variety of sensory symptoms involving both the left arm and the left leg. His first hospital admission was precipitated by an episode of unresponsiveness. The clinical event that led to his second presentation to the emergency department was distinctly different: an acute onset of speech difficulty accompanied by left hemiparesis and right gaze deviation that was worrisome for an acute right middle cerebral artery (MCA) syndrome. The symptoms resolved without intervention, which indicates that he may have had an acute transient ischemic attack (TIA). The most relevant imaging finding was severe cerebrovascular disease, including severe stenosis of the distal right CCA and proximal right ICA. Could this patient’s movement disorder be explained by a vascular lesion?

Limb-Shaking TIAs

Limb-shaking TIAs were first described by C. Miller Fisher in 1962.¹¹ In most case reports, these episodes are associated with high-grade stenosis of the ICA, which was seen in this patient.^12,13 The mechanism is thought to be cerebral hypoperfusion, and changes in posture or head position that decrease cerebral blood flow can precipitate these episodes. In this patient, the first episode of unresponsiveness that led to hospital admission occurred when he was sitting. He then had an acute episode involving right gaze preference that was provoked by exercise and was very suggestive of a TIA in the right MCA territory. These findings are highly suggestive of a diagnosis of limb-shaking TIAs, and I would refer this patient for emergency carotid endarterectomy.

Clinical Impression and Initial Management

Dr. Scott B. Silverman: When I evaluated this patient, his transient right gaze preference and left hemiparesis were consistent with a right MCA syndrome due to a TIA from symptomatic severe stenosis of the right ICA. The mechanism of this event was either artery-to-artery embolism or hypoperfusion. His previous, recurrent episodes of transient choreoathetosis on the left side that had occurred mainly while he was sitting, standing, or exercising were consistent with limb-shaking TIAs from hypoperfusion or low flow.

The pathogenesis of a low-flow state related to severe carotid stenosis resulting in limb-shaking TIAs is described in a small case series.¹⁴ In six out of eight patients, the transient, stereotyped, involuntary movements were eliminated with carotid artery revascularization. Positional cerebral ischemia in patients without orthostatic hypotension has been described.¹⁵

Treatment with atorvastatin was continued, the dose of aspirin was increased to 325 mg per day, and an intravenous heparin infusion was started. The strategy of permissive hypertension was used, with high blood pressure allowed to a maximum systolic blood pressure of 180 mm Hg. The patient was admitted to the stroke service, and carotid artery duplex ultrasonography was performed.

Dr. Gupta: Doppler ultrasonography of the carotid arteries (Figure 2) revealed markedly elevated Doppler flow velocities within the proximal right ICA. There was a parvus et tardus waveform in the distal right ICA, a finding indicative of low flow related to the more proximal high-grade stenosis. The Doppler waveform contours had poststenotic turbulence.

Figure 2

Doppler Ultrasound Image.

Dr. Silverman: The vascular surgery service was consulted, and the patient underwent right carotid endarterectomy.

Clinical Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.

Dr. Albert Y. Hung’s Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks due to severe carotid stenosis, with secondary paroxysmal dyskinesia.

Pathological Discussion

Dr. Caroline F. Hilburn: The endarterectomy specimen included the carotid bifurcation and was notable for firm arterial walls, a finding consistent with calcification. On gross examination (Figure 3A), a large plaque was centered at the carotid bifurcation and protruded into the lumen, resulting in a maximal luminal stenosis of 80%. The plaque had an irregular and focally friable surface. On microscopic examination (Figure 3B), the plaque was characterized by extensive calcification. Some regions of the plaque had a smooth, healed fibrous cap, whereas other regions had an irregular surface suggestive of ulceration, which indicated potential sites of plaque rupture. Multiple smaller calcified plaques were present, affecting both branches of the artery.

Figure 3

Endarterectomy Specimen.

Pathological Diagnosis

Complex atherosclerotic plaque with portions of attached media.

Additional Management

Dr. Silverman: After the procedure, the patient had an uneventful recovery and was discharged home on the fifth hospital day. He was seen 1 month after discharge in the stroke prevention clinic. There had been no further episodes of involuntary movements or choreoathetosis and no stroke or TIA. The patient continues to take aspirin, atorvastatin, and antihypertensive medications.

Final Diagnosis

Limb-shaking transient ischemic attacks.

病例28-2024：一名75岁女性，患有水肿、关节炎和蛋白尿

以下内容来源于新英格兰医学杂志。

Presentation of Case

Dr. Christine M. Parsons (Medicine): A 75-year-old woman was evaluated at this hospital because of arthritis, abdominal pain, edema, malaise, and fever.

Three weeks before the current admission, the patient noticed waxing and waning “throbbing” pain in the right upper abdomen, which she rated at 9 (on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 indicating the most severe pain) at its maximal intensity. The pain was associated with nausea and fever with a temperature of up to 39.0°C. Pain worsened after food consumption and was relieved with acetaminophen. During the 3 weeks before the current admission, edema developed in both legs; it had started at the ankles and gradually progressed upward to the hips. When the edema began to affect her ambulation, she presented to the emergency department of this hospital.

A review of systems that was obtained from the patient and her family was notable for intermittent fever, abdominal bloating, anorexia, and fatigue that had progressed during the previous 3 weeks. The patient reported new orthopnea and nonproductive cough. Approximately 4 weeks earlier, she had had diarrhea for several days. During the 6 weeks before the current admission, the patient had lost 9 kg unintentionally; she also had had pain in the wrists and hands, 3 days of burning and dryness of the eyes, and diffuse myalgias. She had not had night sweats, dry mouth, jaw claudication, vision changes, urinary symptoms, or oral, nasal, or genital ulcers.

The patient’s medical history was notable for multiple myeloma (for which treatment with thalidomide and melphalan had been initiated 2 years earlier and was stopped approximately 1 year before the current admission); hypothyroidism; chikungunya virus infection (diagnosed 7 years earlier); seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis affecting the hands, wrists, elbows, and shoulders (diagnosed 3 years earlier); vitiligo; and osteoarthritis of the right hip, for which she had undergone arthroplasty. Evidence of gastritis was reportedly seen on endoscopy that had been performed 6 months earlier. Medications included daily treatment with levothyroxine and acetaminophen and pipazethate hydrochloride as needed for cough. The patient consumed chamomile and horsetail herbal teas. She had no known allergies to medications, but she had been advised not to take nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after her diagnosis of multiple myeloma.

Approximately 5 months before the current admission, the patient had emigrated from Central America. She lived with her daughter and grandchildren in an urban area of New England. She had previously worked in health care. She had no history of alcohol, tobacco, or other substance use. There was no family history of cancer or autoimmune, renal, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, or cardiac disease.

On examination, the temporal temperature was 37.1°C, the heart rate 106 beats per minute, the blood pressure 152/67 mm Hg, and the oxygen saturation 100% while the patient was breathing ambient air. She had a frail appearance and bitemporal cachexia. The weight was 41 kg and the body-mass index (the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters) 15.2. Her dentition was poor; most of the teeth were missing, caries were present in the remaining teeth, and the mucous membranes were dry. She had abdominal tenderness on the right side and mild abdominal distention, without organomegaly or guarding. Bilateral axillary lymphadenopathy was palpable. Infrequent inspiratory wheezing was noted.

The patient had swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, ulnar deviation, and distal hyperextensibility of the thumbs (Fig. 1). Subcutaneous nodules were observed on the proximal interphalangeal joints of the second and third fingers of the right hand and on the proximal interphalangeal joint of the fourth finger of the left hand. Synovial thickening of the metacarpophalangeal joints of the second fingers was noted. There was mild swelling and tenderness of the wrists. She had pain with flexion of the shoulders and right hip, and there was subtle swelling of the shoulders and right knee. Pitting edema (3+) and vitiligo were noted on the legs. No sclerodactyly, digital pitting, telangiectasias, appreciable calcinosis, nodules, nail changes (including pitting), or tophi were present. The remainder of the examination was normal.

Figure 1

Photograph of the Hands.

The blood levels of glucose, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, globulin, lactate, lipase, magnesium, and phosphorus were normal, as were the prothrombin time and international normalized ratio; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. Urinalysis showed 3+ protein and 3+ blood, and microscopic examination of the sediment revealed 5 to 10 red cells per high-power field and granular casts. Urine and blood were obtained for culture. An electrocardiogram met (at a borderline level) the voltage criteria for left ventricular hypertrophy.

Table 1

Laboratory Data.

Dr. Rene Balza Romero: Computed tomography (CT) of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, performed after the intravenous administration of contrast material, revealed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules (including clusters in the right middle lobe and patchy and ground-glass opacities in the left upper lobe), trace pleural effusion in the left lung, coronary and valvular calcifications, and trace pericardial effusion, ascites, and anasarca. The scans also showed slight enlargement of the axillary lymph nodes (up to 11 mm in the short axis) bilaterally and a chronic-appearing compression fracture involving the T12 vertebral body.

Dr. Parsons: Morphine and lactated Ringer’s solution were administered intravenously. On the second day in the emergency department (also referred to as hospital day 2), the blood levels of haptoglobin, folate, and vitamin B₁₂ were normal; other laboratory test results are shown in Table 1. A rapid antigen test for malaria was positive. Wright–Giemsa staining of thick and thin peripheral-blood smears was negative for parasites; the smears also showed Döhle bodies and basophilic stippling. Antigliadin antibodies and anti–tissue transglutaminase antibodies were not detected. Tests for hepatitis A IgG and hepatitis C antibodies were positive. Tests for hepatitis B core and surface antibodies were negative. A test for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) was negative.

Findings on abdominal ultrasound imaging performed on the second day (Fig. 2A and 2B) were notable for a small volume of ascites and kidneys with echogenic parenchyma. Ultrasonography of the legs showed no deep venous thrombosis. An echocardiogram showed normal ventricular size and function, aortic sclerosis with mild aortic insufficiency, moderate tricuspid regurgitation, a right ventricular systolic pressure of 39 mm Hg, and a small circumferential pericardial effusion. Intravenous hydromorphone was administered, and the patient was admitted to the hospital.

Figure 2

Imaging Studies of the Abdomen and Hands.

On the third day (also referred to as hospital day 3), nucleic acid testing for cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, and hepatitis C virus was negative, and a stool antigen test for Helicobacter pylori was negative. An interferon-γ release assay for Mycobacterium tuberculosis was also negative. Oral acetaminophen and ivermectin and intravenous hydromorphone and furosemide were administered.

Dr. Balza Romero: Radiographs of the hands (Fig. 2C through 2F) showed joint-space narrowing of both radiocarpal joints and proximal interphalangeal erosions involving both hands. Radiographs of the shoulders showed arthritis of the glenohumeral joint and alignment suggestive of a tear of the right rotator cuff. A radiograph of the pelvis showed diffuse joint-space narrowing of the left hip, without osteophytosis, and an intact right hip prosthesis.

Dr. Parsons: Diagnostic tests were performed, and management decisions were made.

Differential Diagnosis

Dr. Beth L. Jonas: This patient is a 75-year-old woman who recently emigrated from Central America. She presented to this hospital with a multisystem disease involving the respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and musculoskeletal systems. Her medical history is notable for seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and multiple myeloma, which had been treated with melphalan and thalidomide. Relevant clinical features on presentation include unintended weight loss and cachexia, axillary lymphadenopathy, serositis, cytopenia in two cell lines, hypocomplementemia, and elevated serum free kappa and lambda light-chain levels (with a normal free light-chain ratio) with no monoclonal spike. The white-cell count was elevated, but she had no eosinophilia. CT images of the chest showed scattered subcentimeter pulmonary nodules. With respect to the patient’s anemia, no schistocytes were present, the haptoglobin level was normal, and the iron studies were unremarkable. These findings, in combination with the elevated ferritin level, indicate anemia of chronic inflammation. The renal findings are most salient in the context of the patient’s hypertension, anasarca, elevated cystatin C level, active urinary sediment with proteinuria in the nephrotic range, and small, echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography.

In constructing a differential diagnosis, I will consider medication use, cancer, infectious disease, and autoimmune disease. Medications can be eliminated as the cause of this patient’s illness, since she was taking only levothyroxine, acetaminophen, and the antitussive agent pipazethate.

Cancer

The patient has a history of multiple myeloma, which may manifest with a multisystem disease involving the kidneys, but serum protein electrophoresis showed no monoclonal protein. Given the presence of nephrotic syndrome in the context of multiple myeloma, systemic immunoglobulin light-chain amyloidosis would be highest on the differential diagnosis with respect to cancer; however, the patient’s normal light-chain ratio makes this diagnosis unlikely. The development of myeloid neoplasms, such as acute myeloid leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, and myeloproliferative neoplasms, is important to consider in the context of previous treatment with alkylating agents,¹ which this patient had received. However, the peripheral-blood smear showed no findings that would indicate a hematologic cancer, and such a diagnosis would not explain the patient’s acute kidney injury with nephrotic-range proteinuria.

Infectious Disease

Several features of this patient’s case warrant special consideration, including her history of immunosuppression due to rheumatoid arthritis and to previously treated myeloma, along with the fact that she had emigrated from Central America, where certain infections may be prevalent. Infection with hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, HIV-1 and HIV-2, cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, H. pylori, and M. tuberculosis can be ruled out on the basis of laboratory studies. A rapid antigen test for plasmodium species was reported to be positive, but this assay has a known cross-reactivity with rheumatoid factor.² Moreover, the thick and thin peripheral-blood smears were negative. Thus, malaria would be an unlikely diagnosis.

The patient has a history of infection with chikungunya virus, an arbovirus transmitted by a mosquito vector that has been responsible for large epidemics in the Americas since 2013.³ Acute symptoms include fever, rash, arthralgia, and myalgia. The development of a chronic arthritis that may meet the classification criteria for rheumatoid arthritis, as defined by the American College of Rheumatology and the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology, has been reported in up to 60% of patients infected with chikungunya virus.^4,5 In the context of this discussion, I considered whether chikungunya virus infection could be the cause of this patient’s symptoms, since this infection occurred before the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. However, the degree of erosion and loss of joint space that was visible on radiographs would be most unusual for arthritis associated with chikungunya virus infection and would not explain the renal manifestations.

Strongyloidiasis is a helminth infection (caused by Strongyloides stercoralis) that is widespread in developing countries. Infection usually occurs through contact with soil, and most affected persons are asymptomatic. However, in immunosuppressed persons, strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome or a disseminated infection can develop as a consequence of accelerated autoinfection.⁶ The clinical presentation of strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome can include gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, constipation, nausea, or vomiting), respiratory symptoms (cough, dyspnea, or wheezing), and rash due to migration of larvae through the subcutaneous tissues. Of note, only a minority of patients present with eosinophilia. Several case reports describe the development of nephrotic-range proteinuria, thrombotic microangiopathy, and IgA vasculitis in patients with strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome.^7-9 However, strongyloidiasis would not explain this patient’s cytopenias and hypocomplementemia.

Autoimmune Disease

The patient has a 3-year history of rheumatoid arthritis, although her clinical features of swan-neck deformity, boutonnière deformity, and joint instability suggest a longer duration of disease. We do not know whether she had received previous treatment with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs or biologic agents, but the possible use of such treatments may be a consideration with respect to her progression of disease and overall degree of immunosuppression. The blood levels of rheumatoid factor and anti–cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies were elevated, and radiographs of the hands showed erosive disease, although there was a relative paucity of metacarpophalangeal findings. A review of systems was negative for dry mouth, but her physical examination showed poor dentition and dry mouth — findings that make secondary Sjögren’s syndrome a consideration.

Renal disease can occur in patients with Sjögren’s syndrome. The two most typical presentations are tubulointerstitial nephritis and, less commonly, nephritic syndrome (membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis related to cryoglobulinemia). Tubulointerstitial nephritis may manifest with renal disease of varying severity, usually with a bland urinary sediment and often with abnormalities of tubular function such as distal renal tubular acidosis. Membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis caused by cryoglobulinemia is the most common glomerular disease associated with Sjögren’s syndrome. Although nephrotic-range proteinuria can occur with Sjögren’s syndrome, it is relatively uncommon.¹⁰ Renal disease is uncommon in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and is usually related to coexisting cardiovascular conditions. Medications used in the treatment of autoimmune disease — mainly nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs — may be associated with renal disease, but I would not expect the presence of an active urinary sediment, as was seen in this patient.

Amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis, a condition that is rare in the era of aggressive management of rheumatoid arthritis, has been described in patients with severe, long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis. Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a protein that is produced in the liver in response to chronic inflammation associated with interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in the context of chronic infections, autoimmune disease (classically rheumatoid arthritis), autoinflammatory disease, and cancers including renal cell carcinoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.¹¹ Signs and symptoms of AA amyloidosis are related to the deposition of the protein in organs, and patients often present with multisystem signs and symptoms. The kidney is the organ that is most often affected, but deposition can occur in the heart, gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and lungs. Proteinuria is the first clinical manifestation in almost 95% of patients with AA amyloidosis, and 50% of affected patients present with nephrotic syndrome.¹² The urinary sediment is generally bland, and complement levels in the blood are normal. AA amyloidosis remains on the differential diagnosis in this patient, but it would not completely explain her renal disease.

Hypocomplementemia

The key to this case is understanding the cause of this patient’s hypocomplementemia. Hypocomplementemia can be due to decreased complement production in the context of liver disease, congenital complement deficiency, or increased complement consumption resulting from activation of the innate immune system. This patient has no history of chronic liver disease and her laboratory test results indicated good hepatic synthetic function. Classical complement deficiency (including C4 deficiency) that begins early in life is associated with autoimmune disease, and early C3 deficiency is characterized by severe pyogenic infections. It would be unusual for a patient of this age to be deficient in both C3 and C4 without earlier clinical consequences. I therefore concluded that the hypocomplementemia in this case was related to complement consumption.

Rheumatic diseases that may be associated with prominent renal manifestations include antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody–associated vasculitis, systemic sclerosis with renal crisis, cryoglobulinemic vasculitis, antiglomerular basement membrane disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Of those conditions, SLE would be the most likely to be manifested by an active urinary sediment and nephrotic-range proteinuria with consumption of both C3 and C4 in the context of fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis. This patient’s fever, thrombocytopenia, and serositis also fit with this diagnosis.¹³

Because the patient has long-standing seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, a diagnosis of AA amyloidosis is strongly suspected. Moreover, given the presence of thrombocytopenia, hypocomplementemia, and an active urinary sediment, I would recommend a kidney biopsy to evaluate for lupus nephritis and AA amyloidosis.

Dr. Beth L. Jonas’s Diagnosis

Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus with amyloid A amyloidosis.

Pathological Discussion

Dr. Claire Trivin-Avillach: Testing for autoimmune antibodies was performed. A test for antinuclear antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:5120 with a homogeneous pattern, and a test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies was positive at a titer of 1:2560.

The diagnostic procedure in this case was a core-needle biopsy of the kidney. Examination of the specimen with light microscopy revealed 20 glomeruli, 45% of which were globally sclerosed, along with fibrosis involving approximately 60% of the interstitium and tubular atrophy. Diffusely enlarged glomeruli with thickened capillary walls and an expanded mesangium were weakly positive on periodic acid–Schiff staining; the glomeruli stained pale blue on Masson’s trichrome staining. Congo red staining revealed metachromatic salmon-colored deposition involving the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium, which was associated with apple-green birefringence when viewed under polarized light (Fig. 3A). In addition, mesangial and endocapillary hypercellularity was identified in approximately 30% of the nonsclerosed glomeruli and was associated with karyorrhexis (Fig. 3B). One cellular crescent was also detected. These features are characteristic of active proliferative glomerulonephritis.

Figure 3

Biopsy Specimen of the Kidney.

Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed prominent granular staining for IgG (4+), IgM (4+), C3 (3+), C1q (3+), IgA (1+), kappa (3+), and lambda (3+) along the glomerular basement membranes and within the mesangium, as well as focal granular deposits of IgG and C3 along the tubular basement membrane (Fig. 3C and 3D). Additional immunofluorescence studies showed strong positivity (4+) for SAA within the glomeruli, the blood-vessel walls, and the interstitium (Fig. 3E), whereas staining for beta₂-microglobulin, transthyretin, and apolipoprotein A1 was faint.

Electron microscopy revealed the presence of subendothelial and mesangial electron-dense deposits (with no substructure identified) adjacent to randomly arranged fibrils (measuring 8.2 to 10.6 nm in diameter) within the glomerular basement membranes and the mesangium (Fig. 3F). Glomerular endothelial cells appeared reactive and contained tubuloreticular inclusions, features that were suggestive of interferon-mediated activation.

The findings on Congo red staining were characteristic of amyloidosis with typical birefringent material. The strong positivity of SAA within the deposits as compared with the faint staining of other reactants identified the type of amyloid as SAA, which is consistent with the patient’s history of rheumatoid arthritis. The biopsy also showed an immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis with a “full house” pattern (defined as positivity for the three immunoglobulin classes IgG, IgM, and IgA and the two complement components C3 and C1q, in reference to the “full house” hand in a poker game). Immune complex–mediated proliferative glomerulonephritis has been reported in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who were receiving anti–TNF-α therapy,¹⁴ which was not the case in this patient. The positive test for hepatitis C antibodies prompted consideration of hepatitis C–related membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. However, taken together, the negative nucleic acid test for hepatitis C virus, the full house pattern on immunofluorescence, the tubular basement membrane deposits, and the positive test for anti–double-stranded DNA antibodies favor a diagnosis of lupus nephritis of at least class III (defined as focal proliferative glomerulonephritis), according to the criteria of the International Society of Nephrology and the Renal Pathology Society, superimposed on AA amyloidosis.

Pathological Diagnosis

Proliferative lupus nephritis of International Society of Nephrology and Renal Pathology Society class III, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.

Discussion of Management

Dr. Pui W. Cheung: On the basis of the finding of echogenic kidneys on ultrasonography and the findings of extensive interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy on kidney biopsy, we know that this patient has advanced chronic kidney disease that is unlikely to be reversible. The patient is also noted to have a markedly lower glomerular filtration rate (GFR) than that predicted by the blood creatinine level owing to the presence of cachexia, and this is substantiated by the cystatin C–based GFR and a 24-hour creatinine clearance of 22 ml per minute per 1.73 m² of body-surface area. The typical induction therapy for stage III or IV lupus nephritis consists of high-dose glucocorticoids and either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Other reasonable alternatives for initial therapy include mycophenolate mofetil in combination with either a calcineurin inhibitor or belimumab, or cyclophosphamide in combination with belimumab.¹⁵ Hydroxychloroquine is also recommended as part of the therapy, since it has shown benefits in improving the response to treatment and reducing disease flare.¹⁶ Mycophenolate mofetil and cyclophosphamide have similar efficacy with respect to clinical response, which includes a reduction in proteinuria and either an improvement in renal function or stabilization of renal function; the risks of infections and adverse events associated with these medications are also similar.^17,18

Given the severity of the lupus nephritis with overlying AA amyloidosis from active rheumatoid arthritis, the treatment options proposed were high-dose glucocorticoids and rituximab with either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide.¹⁹ After discussions with multidisciplinary consultants from rheumatology, infectious diseases, and nephrology, lingering concerns were raised about infection and patient frailty; ultimately, the decision was made to initiate high-dose glucocorticoid therapy in combination with mycophenolate mofetil, rituximab, and hydroxychloroquine.

The patient’s mycophenolate mofetil dose regimen was inconsistent owing to gastrointestinal side effects, and the treatment was eventually withheld because of pancytopenia and fever. Unfortunately, her kidney function worsened, and renal replacement therapy was initiated within 3 weeks after the start of the induction therapy. The cause of her renal failure was thought to be disease progression, compounded by hemodynamically mediated tubular injury in the context of infection. While the administration of mycophenolate mofetil was stopped, treatment with rituximab was continued, with slow tapering of the glucocorticoid dose at the direction of the rheumatologist. She remained dependent on dialysis and was deemed to have end-stage kidney disease after 3 months of dialysis.

Dr. Lisa G. Criscione-Schreiber: The patient has SLE with nephritis, seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic AA amyloidosis. AA amyloidosis is rare owing to the availability of effective therapies for rheumatoid arthritis and is managed through aggressive treatment of inflammation due to rheumatoid arthritis. Reports addressing the management of rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis generally cite stability of end-organ damage caused by AA amyloid as evidence of effective management of the condition (through treatment of the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis). Methotrexate, the cornerstone of treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, is contraindicated in this case owing to the presence of kidney disease. The alkylating agent cyclophosphamide has been reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis from rheumatoid arthritis²⁰ and has known efficacy in patients with lupus nephritis, both of which make it a viable treatment option. Rituximab has also been reported to be effective for managing rheumatoid arthritis–induced AA amyloidosis,²¹ is approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and is used for manifestations of SLE, including thrombocytopenia and nephritis. Although anti–TNF-α agents, abatacept, and Janus kinase inhibitors are reported to be effective for the treatment of AA amyloidosis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis,²² recent publications have coalesced on the ability of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to block interleukin-6–induced hepatic production of SAA.^23-25

The overlap of seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis and SLE (sometimes termed “rhupus”) usually resembles rheumatoid arthritis more than SLE; manifestations include thrombocytosis, leukocytosis, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, an elevated blood level of C-reactive protein, and the presence of marginal erosions on radiographs.²⁶ In contrast, SLE without seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis characteristically manifests with thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate but usually not an elevated C-reactive protein level; in addition, nonerosive inflammatory arthritis with reversible deformities is commonly observed. This patient had a mixed laboratory profile, on the basis of the results of antinuclear antibody and anti–double-stranded DNA antibody tests. The challenge of treating an overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and SLE is choosing disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs that are effective and safe in both conditions. This patient’s most severe disease manifestation is lupus nephritis; therefore, the treatment regimen must target nephritis along with the AA amyloidosis and inflammatory arthritis.

As noted earlier, current induction therapy for lupus nephritis includes either mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide. Mycophenolate mofetil may provide inadequate treatment of the rheumatoid arthritis and amyloidosis, whereas cyclophosphamide would treat the lupus nephritis, has possible efficacy for treatment of the AA amyloidosis, and would treat the rheumatoid arthritis. Rituximab could be added to cyclophosphamide or mycophenolate mofetil to treat the rheumatoid arthritis and resultant AA amyloidosis and could also possibly help treat the lupus nephritis. The addition of anti–interleukin-6 therapy to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide is an intriguing option that may effectively treat the rheumatoid arthritis and subsequent AA amyloidosis. The addition of belimumab to mycophenolate mofetil or cyclophosphamide has been reported to improve renal response in patients with lupus nephritis,²⁷ as has the addition of voclosporin to mycophenolate mofetil.²⁸ However, belimumab is ineffective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, and voclosporin has not been studied in patients with rheumatoid arthritis or in those with a GFR of 45 milliliters per minute or less. The high-dose glucocorticoids that are used in induction therapy for lupus nephritis will effectively manage this patient’s inflammatory arthritis and probably also the subsequent AA amyloidosis. Finally, it is important that every patient with lupus nephritis receive hydroxychloroquine, which improves the treatment response to induction therapy.²⁹

Follow-up

Dr. Parsons: The patient’s hospital course was further complicated by suspected immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, for which she received intravenous immune globulin. Her pancytopenia and arthritis ultimately abated. Unfortunately, she did not have renal recovery and continues to receive hemodialysis. After a prolonged hospital course, she was discharged home.

Final Diagnosis

Overlap syndrome of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus complicated by proliferative lupus nephritis, superimposed on amyloid A amyloidosis.